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STAMMERING   AND   COGNATE 
DEFECTS   OF   SPEECH 


STAMMERING 

AND  COGNATE   DEFECTS 

OF    SPEECH 


f  ri.iM' 


BY 
C.  S.  BLUEMEL 


VOLUME   I 
THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   STAMMERING 


NEW  YORK 
G.  E.   STECHERT   AND    COMPANY 

LONDON  —  LEIPZIG  —  PARIS 


Copyright,  1913, 
By  C.  S.   BLUEMEL. 


All  rights  reserved. 


"^^  r  4-  9  4, 


J.  B.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  <fc  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

Five  years  ago  the  author  began  a  systematic  in- 
vestigation into  the  cause  of  stammering.  In  his 
preliminary  notes  he  wrote  as  follows : 

"  The  true  theory  of  causality  must  explain  all  the  facts.  It 
must  explain  the  fact  — 

"  That  the  stammerer  can  usually  sing  without  difficulty. 

"That  the  stammerer  can  often  speak  well  when  alone. 

"  That  the  stammerer  is  usually  fluent  when  speaking  in  con- 
cert with  other  people. 

"That  the  stammerer  can  usually  repeat  fluently  the  words 
that  are  pronounced  for  him  by  another  person  by  way  of 
assistance. 

"  That  the  stammerer  can  usually  repeat  a  word  that  he  has 
eventually  stammered  out. 

"  That  consonants  followed  by  short  vowels  are  more  difficult 
for  the  stammerer  than  consonants  followed  by  long  vowels. 

"  That  consonants  at  the  end  of  a  word  never  occasion  diffi- 
culty. 

"  That  the  stammerer  may  have  difficulty  on  words  that  com- 
mence with  vowels. 

"That  the  speech-defect  may  assume  the  most  diverse  forms, 
being  in  one  case  passive,  and  in  another  active  and  boister- 
ous." 

"That  one  can  stammer  in  thought  as  well  as  in  speech. 

"That  there  are  more  male  than  female  stammerers. 

"  That  stammering  is  rarely  acquired  after  the  fifteenth  year." 
Etc.,  etc. 

The  theory  of  causality  that  the  author  has  arrived 
at  affords  what  appears  to  be  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  the  various  paradoxes  mentioned.  The  theory 
has  been  developed  in  large  part  as  the  result  of  in- 


vi  PREFACE 

trospective  evidence,  —  evidence  as  indispensable  as 
it  was  uncoveted. 

The  theoretical  discussion  of  the  causality  and 
psychology  of  stammering  is  presented  in  the  first 
volume  of  this  book. 

In  the  second  volume  the  author  has  reviewed  and 
criticised  the  systems  at  present  employed  in  treating 
stammering  in  Europe  and  America.  He  has  thus 
fulfilled,  at  a  somewhat  late  date,  the  wish  that  Schul- 
thess  and  some  of  his  contemporaries  expressed  nearly 
a  century  ago  —  that  some  one  would  embody  in  a 
single  volume  all  known  systems  applicable  to  the  treat- 
ment of  stammering.  But  lest  the  words  "  all  known 
systems"  should  imply  too  much,  let  the  author  add 
that  he  does  not  profess  to  be  omniscient ;  and,  fur- 
ther, that  the  systems  that  he  has  reviewed  are  merely 
those  that  he  knows  to  be  current  or  to  have  been 
recently  current  in  the  therapy  of  stammering.  The 
author  has  made  no  attempt  to  undertake  an  his- 
torical review,  since  this  field  has  been  effectively 
covered  by  Hunt  in  his  "  Stammering  and  Stutter- 
ing." The  contemporaneous  systems  given  repre- 
sent, however,  the  principal  methods  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  Canada,  the  British  Isles,  France, 
Switzerland,  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark, 
Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  Austria.  These  systems 
are  therefore  thoroughly  representative  of  those  em- 
ployed in  the  civilized  world. 

The  systems  cited  in  this  review  have  not,  as  a 


PREFACE  vii 

rule,  been  given  for  their  sovereign  merit.  Indeed, 
many  of  the  systems  are  entirely  devoid  of  merit; 
they  have  been  recorded  merely  because  they  are  the 
gold  bricks  that  are  daily  sold  to  stammerers  by  an 
infamous  fraternity  of  '*  speech  specialists."  These 
wretched  systems  —  and,  indeed,  most  elocutionary 
systems  —  must  inevitably  become  obsolete  with  the 
advancement  of  the  psychological  investigation  of 
stammering.  But  meanwhile  progress  is  hampered 
by  charlatans,  who  rob  the  stammerer  and  bring 
everybody  and  everything  connected  with  the  treat- 
ment or  investigation  of  stammering  into  disrepute. 
Manifestly  it  is  incumbent  upon  stammerers  them- 
selves to  remedy  these  conditions. 

A  glossary  has  been  appended  to  the  second  vol- 
ume of  the  book.  This  has  been  made  sufficiently 
comprehensive  to  render  the  book  available  to  the 
youthful  stammerer. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  V.  A.  C.  Hen- 
mon  (of  the  Department  of  Psychology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin)  and  to  Professor  Lawrence  W. 
Cole  (of  the  Department  of  Psychology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Colorado)  for  valuable  criticisms  of  the  first 
volume  of  this  monograph.  The  author  is  also  in- 
debted to  the  numerous  friends  that  have  in  various 
ways  and  at  various  times  assisted  him  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  work. 

C.  S.  B. 

Boulder,  Colorado, 
October,  1912. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGE 

Introduction .        .        i 

CHAPTER   n 
Mental  Types  :  Eye-mind edness,  Ear-mindedness,  etc.      25 

CHAPTER   HI 
The  Verbal  Image 40 

CHAPTER  IV 
The  Brain 61 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Relation  between  Mental  Imagery  and  Vol- 
untary Speech 86 

CHAPTER   VI 
Impairment  of  the  Brain-centres:  Aphasia      .        .    106 

CHAPTER  VII 

Stammering     , 181 

ix 


X  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   VIII 

PAGE 

Mental  Confusion  in  Stammering       ....    279 

CHAPTER   IX 
Fear  and  Auto-suggestion 291 

CHAPTER  X 
Corollaries    . 334 


THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF 
STAMMERING 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Stammering  and  cognate  defects  of  speech  have  in 
the  past  been  studied  almost  exclusively  in  their 
physical  manifestations.  The  point  of  view  has  been 
that  of  physiology.  In  the  present  work  the  subject 
will  be  considered  primarily  in  its  mental  aspect. 
The  point  of  view  will  be  that  of  psychology.  For 
this  reason  it  will  be  necessary  at  the  outset  to  con- 
sider a  few  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  psychology 
itself,  and  the  meanings  of  the  psychological  terms  that 
will  occur  most  frequently  in  this  monograph.^ 

Psychology 

Psychology  is  commonly  defined  as  the  science  of 
mental  life,  or  the  science  of  consciousness.  It  is  the 
study  of  the  mental  processes,  —  of  their  nature  and 
function. 

^  A  complete  glossary  is  also  given  at  the  end  of  the  second  volume. 

I 


2  THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERmG 

Sensation 

By  sensation,  the  psychologist  means  the  conscious- 
ness arising  from  the  stimulation  of  one  of  the  bodily 
sense-organs.  One  has  sensations  of  sight  as  ether- 
waves  impinge  upon  the  retina  of  the  eye  ;  sensations 
of  sound  as  air- vibrations  strike  the  drum  of  the  ear ; 
sensations  of  smell  when  free  particles  of  matter, 
floating  in  the  atmosphere,  stimulate  the  olfactory 
nerves ;   and  so  on. 

The  senses  were  formerly  considered  to  be  five  in 
number,  —  sight,  hearing,  feeHng,  taste,  and  smell. 
To-day  the  number  of  senses  recognized  by  the  psy- 
chologist is  in  the  neighborhood  of  eighteen.  Each 
is  regarded  as  an  elementary  sense  with  special  end- 
organs  conveying  the  sensory  current  to  the  brain. 
**FeeKng"  (or  touch)  is  differentiated  into  elementary 
sensations  of  pressure,  pain,  warmth,  and  cold. 
Closely  alHed  to  this  group  are  the  kinaesthetic  sensa- 
tions, —  sensations  involved  during  muscular  activity. 
The  kinaesthetic  sensations  are  conveyed  to  the  brain 
by  sensory  nerves  found  in  the  muscles,  tendons,  and 
joints.  These  sensations  are  felt  in  the  arm  as  one 
lifts  a  heavy  weight ;  they  are  felt  chiefly  in  the  fingers 
and  forearm  as  one  clenches  the  fist ;  they  are  detected 
in  the  lips  and  tongue  during  speech.  The  organic 
sensations  may  be  included  as  further  subdivisions  of 
**feehng."     They  are  sensations  from  within  the  body 


INTRODUCTION  3 

itself,  —  feelings  of  hunger,  thirst,  and  nausea,  and 
sensations  from  the  respiratory  and  circulatory  sys- 
tems. (These  sensations  are  distinctly  emotional  in 
their  coloring.  They  will  be  considered  in  their  rela- 
tion to  the  emotions  in  Chapter  IX.)  The  static  sen- 
sations report  the  movements  of  the  body  as  a  whole. 
A  sensation  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  an  impression. 

Mental  Images 

Sensations  arise  as  the  result  of  the  actual  stimula- 
tion of  the  sense-organs.  They  may,  however,  be  re- 
vived in  memory  quite  independently  of  the  stimulus, 
in  which  case  they  are  known  as  mental  images.  Men- 
tal images  are  often  dim  and  fugitive,  but  in  dreams 
and  hallucinations  they  are  sufficiently  intense  to  be 
mistaken  for  actual  sensations.  During  the  waking 
state  the  sensations  that  one  experiences  are  usually 
too  vivid  to  allow  mental  images  to  come  conspicu- 
ously to  the  foreground  of  consciousness.  However, 
as  one  is  sitting  in  perfect  quietness  in  the  dark, 
mental  images  frequently  present  themselves  with 
considerable  clearness.  In  revery  one  reviews  old 
scenes  and  scans  the  faces  of  absent  friends;  one 
hears  absent  voices,  and  enjoys  music  that  comes 
back  in  thought. 

These  mental  images  are  not  restricted  to  any 
particular  field  of  sensation ;  they  may  represent  any 
sensation  that  has  occurred  in  consciousness.     They 


4  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

are  not  the  mere  habitants  of  dreams,  nor  is  there 
anything  poetic  or  fantastic  in  their  nature.  They 
are  the  material  with  which  we  think ;  and  they  are 
just  as  indispensable  for  the  solution  of  a  problem  in 
geometry  as  they  are  for  the  production  of  an  artist's 
masterpiece. 

The  visual  image  is  easily  recognized  if  one  glances 
at  some  object  —  a  picture,  for  example  —  and  im- 
mediately closes  the  eyes.  There  is  no  definite  point 
in  time  at  which  the  sensation  can  be  said  to  vanish ; 
certainly  it  does  not  terminate  with  the  closing  of  the 
eyes.  For  a  moment  the  mental  picture  is  present 
v^ith  vivid  color  and  accurate  detail.  One  can  examine 
it  for  points  that  escaped  observation  during  actual 
vision.  Strictly  speaking,  this  mental  picture  is  an 
after-sensation.  It  is  called  the  primary  mental 
image,  in  contradistinction  to  the  secondary  imagCy 
—  the  re-called  image,  or  memory-image  proper.^ 

Memory-images  differ  from  sensations  mainly  in 
the  fact  that  they  are  usually  less  distinct.  These 
secondary  visual  images  are  present  in  the  mind  as 
one  recalls  any  visual  experience,  —  as  one  sketches 
a  scene  from  memory,  for  instance.  Artists  frequently 
have  so  vivid  a  memory  for  visual  impressions  that 

1  The  visual  after-image  is  often  a  negative  image ;  i.e.  there  is 
an  inversion  of  light  and  shade,  as  in  the  photographic  negative. 
In  the  negative  after-image  the  spectral  colors  are  replaced  by  their 
complementary  colors. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

they  are  able  to  paint,  with  the  greatest  accuracy  of 
detail  and  color,  scenes  that  they  have  not  beheld 
for  years. 

Visual  images  are  usually  clearest  the  first  moment 
they  arise  in  consciousness.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not 
become  clearer  with  mental  fixation.  In  this  respect 
the  visual  image  might  be  compared  to  the  visual 
impression  that  one  gets  from  the  sun,  or  a  brilHant 
light  flashing  out  in  the  darkness.  For  an  instant 
the  vision  is  distinct,  but  it  melts  in  a  moment  to 
a  shapeless  blur.  In  many  cases  the  analogy  will 
not  hold.  Some  people  can  scrutinize  their  visual 
images  at  will ;  with  others  the  image  is  not  clear  even 
at  the  moment  of  its  first  appearance  in  consciousness. 
Under  abnormal  conditions  the  mental  image  may 
assume  the  vividness  of  an  actual  sensation.  In 
this  case  there  is  usually  an  ''hallucination."  The 
condition  is  pathological,  and  does  not  frequently 
occur.  To  it  may  be  attributed  many  of  the  super- 
natural phenomena  that  excite  the  wonder  of  the 
credulous.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  self-respecting 
ghost  would  haunt  anything  but  a  mind  affected  by 
a  disordered  liver.  Frequently  the  subject  of  such 
an  experience  is  fully  aware  of  the  hallucinatory 
character  of  the  sights  that  he  sees  or  the  sounds  that 
he  hears.  In  this  case  he  is  said  to  experience  a 
*' pseudo-hallucination." 

Auditory  images  are  present  in  one's  memory  of 


6  THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

sounds.  One  listens  to  ''ear-haunting"  tunes.  A 
person  picks  up  a  musical  score;  and,  as  he  reads 
the  notes,  hears  the  tune  in  mental  imagery.  A 
musician  may  compose  music  in  a  train,  jotting  down 
the  notes  as  the  strains  of  music  rise  in  his  mind. 
One  may  Hsten  in  memory  to  the  commoner  physical 
sounds,  hearing  in  auditory  images  the  rumble  of 
a  wagon  in  the  street  or  the  clop-clop  of  horses'  hoofs. 
After  a  tedious  train  journey  many  people  hear  for 
hours  the  clangor  and  rumble  of  the  train.^ 

In  audition,  again,  we  have  the  primary  mental 
image,  —  occurring  in  the  form  of  a  mental  "echo." 
The  primary  memory  is  often  conspicuous  where  the 
secondary  memory  for  sounds  is  deficient. 

Tactual  images  (or  touch  memories)  are  often  quite 
clear  when  they  reflect  distinctive  sensations.  One 
''feels"  the  soft,  cold  petals  of  a  rose  as  it  is  (ip  imagi- 
nation) touched  to  the  Hps.  One  can  recall  the  cold, 
smooth  feeHng  of  marble  or  the  soft  feeling  of  velvet, 
and  mentally  contrast  these  feeHngs  with  the  rough 
feeling  of  sandpaper.  One  can  imagine  the  sensation 
that  would  result  from  plunging  the  hands  into  hot 
water,  or  the  freezing  chill  one  would  experience  on 
falHng  through  the  ice.  (These  last  two  are,  strictly 
speaking,   thermal  images.)     One  may  have  images 

*  People  differ  greatly  in  their  capacity  for  recalling  the  experi- 
ences of  the  different  senses.  This  point  will  be  considered  in  Chap- 
ter n  in  the  discussion  of  mental  types. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

of  pain  whilst  listening  to  the  vivid  description  of 
an  accident ;  and  one  may  imagine  the  pain  of  running 
broken  glass  into  the  fingers  or  cutting  the  fingers  with 
a  knife. 

Gustatory  images  arise  in  the  mind  as  one  hstens  to 
the  description  of  a  feast.  The  writer  recently  read 
an  account  of  an  antarctic  expedition  in  which  the 
explorers,  when  their  pemmican  was  low,  would 
amuse  themselves  for  hours  by  describing  by  turns  the 
sumptuous  feasts  they  would  enjoy  upon  their  return 
to  civilization.  After  the  descriptions  they  would 
vote  upon  the  menus.  There  was  roast  turkey, 
steaming-hot  plum  pudding,  and  numberless  other 
things  that  would  appeal  to  starving  men.  The 
pleasure  of  the  pastime  was,  of  course,  in  the  play  of 
the  gustatory  imagery. 

Olfactory  images  are  often  present  in  the  stream  of 
consciousness.  One  may  recall  in  mental  imagery 
the  smell  of  burning  tobacco,  of  cooking  bacon,  the 
odor  of  a  rose,  of  cheese,  of  garHc,  and  of  numerous 
other  objects  that  have  occasioned  olfactory  sensa- 
tions. 

KincBsthetic,  or  motor,  images  will  occupy  a  posi- 
tion of  prominence  in  later  discussions.  They  are 
the  memories  of  muscular  movements,  —  memories 
of  the  muscular  feelings  involved  in  clenching  the 
fist,  in  flexing  or  extending  the  arm ;  they  are  images 
of  the  movements  made  in  writing,  in  playing  the 


8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

piano,  and  in  speaking ;  they  are,  in  fact,  the  remem- 
bered feelings  of  any  muscular  movement  whatever. 
People  that  have  lost  an  arm  can  often  mentally 
move  the  lost  hand  and  work  the  missing  fingers. 
These  movements  occur,  of  course,  in  kinaesthetic 
imagery. 

Mental  images  are  representative  of  past  sensa- 
tions. It  is  quite  impossible  for  one  to  imagine  a 
sensation  that  has  not  been  experienced.  A  man  that 
is  born  bhnd  can  never  imagine  the  sensations  of 
sight.  A  man  that  has  not  looked  at  the  moon 
through  a  telescope  cannot  imagine  what  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  moon  would  be.  A  man  that  has 
never  heard  an  Indian  tom-tom  can  have  no  auditory 
image  that  represents  the  sound.  A  man  that  is 
born  deaf  has  no  auditory  imagery  whatever.  Not 
only  is  he  unable  to  imagine  sounds,  but  he  is  totally 
unable  to  imagine  what  sound  is  like.  A  person  that 
is  born  deaf  remains  dumb  because  he  has  never 
heard  words,  and  is  consequently  unable  to  call  up 
word-images  in  his  mind.^ 

Mental  images  may,  however,  be  recombined  so 
that  the  collocation  is  original.  One  can  imagine 
a  winged  horse,  without  having  seen  such  a  beast. 
But  both  the  horse  and  the  wings  have  occurred 
separately  in  experience.  One  pictures  to  himself 
*  This  last  statement  will  be  modified  later.     See  pp.  46  ff.  and  p.  95. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

a  purple  moon,  —  a  thing  apparently  original.  Yet 
he  has  formerly  seen  the  moon  and  experienced  the 
color  purple.  He  has  merely  recombined  elements 
of  his  past  experience.  In  the  last  analysis,  the  ele- 
ments of  any  combination  of  mental  imagery  will 
be  found  to  be  reproductions  of  one's  former  sensations. 

Imagination  is  called  productive,  or  constructive, 
when  it  involves  an  original  collocation  of  mental 
images.  It  is  termed  reproductive  when  it  involves 
a  mere  reproduction  of  sensations  —  in  the  arrange- 
ment in  which  they  occurred.  Reproductive  im- 
agination is  thus  practically  identical  with  memory. 
However,  the  mere  duplication  of  sensations  in  mental 
imagery  is  not  memory.  There  is  necessary,  in  addi- 
tion, the  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  mental  images 
portray  former  experiences. 

A  mental  image  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  an  idea. 
Strictly  speaking,  it  is  an  idea  only  when  it  is  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  its  meaning. 

Association 

The  association  of  ideas  in  the  mind  is  due  largely 
to  previous  experience.  If  two  sensations  have 
occurred  together,  the  mental  image  of  the  one  is 
likely  to  redintegrate,  or  recall,  the  mental  image  of 
the  other.  The  phenomenon  is  due  to  mental  or 
neural  habit.  The  tunes  of  the  English  and  German 
national    anthems  and   the  American  national  song, 


lo         THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"America,"  are  identical.  When  the  German  hears 
this  particular  air,  he  immediately  thinks  of  the 
words ''Heil  Dir  im  Siegerkranz " ;  the  American, 
on  hearing  the  melody,  associates  it  with  the  words 
"My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee";  and  the  Englishman 
associates  the  same  tune  with  "  God  save  our  Gracious 
King."  In  each  case  the  associations  are  due  solely 
to  experience :  the  words  and  the  tune  have  occurred 
together  in  the  past.  Again,  one  picks  up  a  volume 
of  Milton,  and  in  a  few  seconds  inquires  the  name  of 
the  last  Emperor  of  China.  What  is  the  connection  ? 
The  book  suggested  printing ;  China  was  thought  of 
as  the  home  of  printing;  the  interest  then  turns  to 
the  country's  poHtical  affairs,  and  prompts  the  ques- 
tion concerning  the  emperor.  The  associations  are 
due  to  contiguity. 

Ideas  thus  suggest  one  another  when  the  experiences 
that  they  represent  have  been  contiguous  either  in 
time  or  in  space.  In  passing  a  certain  house  one  is 
reminded  of  the  people  that  Hve  there.  The  associa- 
tion is  one  of  spatial  contiguity.  Similarly,  an  orange 
reminds  the  town-bred  man  of  a  fruiterer's  shop; 
while  it  reminds  the  orange-grower  of  his  orange 
groves.  In  each  case  the  associations  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  objects  thought  of  have  been  adjacent 
in  space.  By  temporal  contiguity  an  orange-grove 
may  remind  one  of  a  toothache  for  the  reason  that 
he  was  suffering  from  toothache  at  a  time  when  he 


INTRODUCTION  ii 

visited  an  orange-grove.  Again,  the  sound  of  a 
particular  melody  may  recall  the  place  where  it  was 
heard.  In  these  cases  the  association  is  one  of  tem- 
poral contiguity. 

For  two  objects  to  be  associated  in  space  they  must 
of  course  appeal  to  sight  or  touch.  But  when  objects 
are  seen  or  felt  together,  they  must  be  seen  or  felt 
simultaneously;  therefore  spatial  association  always 
involves  temporal  association.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  two  experiences  are  associated  only  in  time, 
one  or  both  must  appeal  to  a  non-spatial  sense  — 
such  as  hearing,  smell,  or  taste,  for  instance;  hence 
normal  temporal  association  excludes  spatial  associa- 
tion.^ It  follows  that  there  is  a  double  connection 
between  things  seen  or  felt  together,  and  but  a  single 
connection  between  conjoined  experience  of  the  other 
senses. 

When  sensations  follow  one  another,  the  associa- 
tion is  always  stronger  in  the  order  of  the  occurrence. 
After  learning  the  alphabet  forwards,  one  cannot  im- 
mediately say  it  backwards. 

The  associations  in  the  minds  of  lower  animals  are 
almost  exclusively  those  of  contiguity.  The  stage- 
feats  of  so-called  performing  animals  are  explained 
by  the  associations  of  certain  bodily  movements  with 

^  Sounds  and  odors  can,  of  course,  be  thought  of  as  coming  from 
a  particular  point  in  space;  but  in  this  case  the  spatial  relation  is 
expressed  in  the  mind  in  terms  of  sight  or  touch. 


12  THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

signals  given  from  behind  the  scenes.  The  perform- 
ing horse  stamps  his  hoof  as  the  attendant  in  the  wings 
waves  a  flag.  He  responds  merely  as  an  automaton, 
and  it  is  needless  to  say  that  he  knows  nothing  of 
the  questions  that  he  is  credited  with  answering. 

There  is  a  distinctive  form  of  association  that 
sunders  the  human  mind  from  that  of  the  brute;  it 
is  association  hy  similarity.  When  the  round  stone 
suggests  a  hammer  and  the  sharp  stone  an  axe, 
when  a  springing  branch  suggests  a  bow  and  the  fall- 
ing of  an  apple  suggests  the  mutual  attraction  of 
bodies ;  then  the  human  mind  supersedes  experience. 
When  a  person's  associations  are  those  of  contiguity, 
he  must  inevitably  be  a  clumsy  and  laborious  thinker. 
He  plods  along,  thinking  in  mental  brickbats,  and 
erecting  his  thought-structures  piece  by  piece.  The 
person  associating  things  by  similarity  holds,  as  it 
were,  the  magic  wand  of  thought.  A  bare  suggestion, 
and  the  whole  superstructure  of  thought  stands 
complete :  the  process  seems  sufficiently  thaumatur- 
gic  to  transcend  the  laws  of  association. 

Genius,  it  is  held  by  some  psychologists,  is  identical 
with  the  possession  of  "similar"  association  to  an 
extreme  degree.  This  faculty  is  accounted  suflicient 
to  explain  the  achievements  of  the  Newtons  and  the 
Darwins.^ 

1  There  is  considerable  difiference,  however,  between  obeying 
similarity  and  detecting  it.     Genius  is  rather  the  faculty  for  detect- 


INTRODUCTION  13 

Contrast,  as  a  cause  of  association,  is  but  another 
phase  of  similarity.  Cause  and  effect  is  reducible 
to  contiguity. 

It  is  beyond  question  that  we  are  no  more  able  to 
ignore  association  in  our  thinking  than  we  are  able 
with  our  mental  images  to  transcend  experience. 
One  idea  is  not  able  to  redintegrate  any  other  idea 
that  we  mav  wish.  The  ideas  that  it  recalls  must 
be  associated  by  contiguity  or  similarity.  At  best 
we  can  seize  upon  one  of  several  ideas  that  present 
themselves.  Associations  do  appear  that  seemingly 
violate  all  these  relations ;  yet  the  associations  un- 
doubtedly occur  in  the  fringe  of  consciousness.  There 
are  in  our  minds  rudimentary  and  fugitive  thoughts 
that  do  not  come  to  the  focus  of  attention.  Writing 
on  obscure  associations,  James  says :  ^  ''If  I  hear  a 
friend  describe  a  certain  family  as  having  blotting-paper 
voices,  the  image,  though  immediately  felt  to  be 
appropriate,  bafHes  the  utmost  powers  of  analysis." 
The  relation  here  appears  to  be  hidden  in  the  shadows 
of  the  mind.  If  one  could  admit  similarity  between 
the  experiences  of  disparate  senses,  he  would  probably 

ing  it.  (See  James,  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  361.) 
Efficiency  in  abstract  thought  is  perhaps  due  to  the  ability  to  attach 
the  maximum  of  meaning  to  a  minimum  of  imagery.  The  question 
then  arises  as  to  the  nature  of  meaning,  and  it  may  be  found  that 
meaning  is  as  much  dependent  upon  contiguous  association  as  upon 
similar  association. 

1  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  I,  p.  582. 


14         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

seek  a  resemblance  between  the  characteristic  quality 
of  the  voices  and  the  soft  feeHng  of  blotting-paper. 
It  seems  difficult,  however,  to  beheve  that  there  can 
be  similarity  between  the  experiences  of  unrelated 
senses.  It  may  perhaps  be  that  the  resemblance  lies 
between  the  sound  that  results  from  tearing  blotting- 
paper,  and  the  sound  of  the  thick  and  somewhat 
husky  voices  to  which  the  paper  is  compared.  The 
association  would  then  be  complex,  involving  both 
similarity  and  temporal  contiguity.  Many  such 
associations  occur  that,  for  the  time  being,  defy 
analysis.  Frequently  it  is  only  by  chance  that  one 
stumbles  upon  the  explanation.  There  can  be  little 
doubt,  however,  that  a  relation  of  contiguity  or  simi- 
larity invariably  exists. 

Perception 

Perception  is  the  mental  process  by  which  the  mind 
associates  sensations  with  mental  images.  The  bare 
sensation  is  not  an  element  of  knowledge.  It  is  a 
mere  ''that."  The  percept  is  a  ''that  which."  It  is 
the  sensation,  plus  its  associated  images.  Bare 
sensations,  then,  do  not  frequently  occur  in  adult  life. 
As  one  inhales  the  fragrance  of  a  rose,  attending  merely 
to  the  odor,  he  experiences  something  akin  to  the  pure 
sensation.  But  generally  things  are  regarded  for 
their  meaning.  One  hears  a  rumble  in  the  distance, 
and  "perceives"  a  train.     The  rumble,  however,  is 


INTRODUCTION  15 

a  mere  auditory  sensation.  The  idea  of  the  train  arises 
by  virtue  of  association,  the  sound  suggesting  the 
train's  appearance  and  other  quahties.  The  reader 
sees  printed  words  on  the  page  before  him.  The  words 
are  so  many  black  marks  upon  a  white  background. 
They  have  meaning  only  because  they  are  associated 
with  certain  sounds,  —  the  spoken  words  they  rep- 
resent. The  spoken  words,  in  their  turn,  are  purely 
arbitrary  symbols.  Frequently  they  have  different 
meanings  in  different  languages.^  The  meaning  is 
determined  entirely  by  the  object,  action,  etc.,  that 
the  word  recalls. 

The  mind  in  reahty  contributes  the  greater  part 
of  the  percept.  The  bare  sensation  resulting  from 
the  stimulation  of  the  peripheric  sense-organ  is  nothing 
more  than  a  cue.  As  a  unitary  thing  it  is  devoid  of 
meaning.  The  multitudinous  associations  alone  con- 
fer meaning  upon  it.  One  sees  a  table  top  as  a  square, 
though  the  retinal  image  is  that  of  a  rhombus.  A 
figure  in  the  distance  is  perceived  as  a  man,  though 
one  can  ''cover"  him  with  the  little  finger.  A  boy, 
a  Httle  nearer,  produces  a  retinal  image  ten  times  as 
large ;  yet  the  boy  is  not  mistaken  for  a  giant.  It 
is  the  mind's  contributions,  the  associations,  that 
prevent  utter  chaos  in  the  interpretation  of  impres- 

^"The  Chilians  say  papa  for  'mother/  and  the  Georgians  say 
mama  for  'father,'  while  in  various  languages  dada  may  mean  'father,' 
'cousin,'  'nurse';  lata,  'father,'  'son,'  'good-bye! '"  (Tylor,  "Anthro- 
pology," p.  129.) 


i6         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

sions.  Common  illusions  are  due  to  the  mind's 
contributing  the  wrong  images  to  a  "misinterpreted" 
cue.  One  hears  the  rustle  of  leaves,  and  mistakes 
the  sound  for  approaching  footsteps;  or,  seeing  a 
shadow  on  the  wall,  one  ''perceives"  a  ghost.  The 
illusion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  an  inappropriate  image 
advances  to  meet  the  sensation. 

Conception 

A  concept  is  a  congeries  of  associated  mental  images. 
The  act  of  the  mind  in  regarding  the  relation  between 
these  images,  or  the  relation  between  different  con- 
cepts, is  called  conception.  The  concept  of  an  apple 
may  be  regarded  as  the  following  group  of  associated 
mental  images :  the  visual  image  of  its  appearance, 
the  image  of  its  taste,  the  image  of  its  smell,  the  image 
derived  from  handling  it,  and  the  verbal  image  of  its 
name.  There  might  be  still  other  images,  more  or 
less  nascent,  —  the  memory  of  the  sound  produced 
by  paring  an  apple,  and  a  kinaesthetic  image  of  the 
biting  action  of  the  jaw,  for  instance.  One  particular 
image  usually  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  concept.  In 
the  present  case  it  would  most  likely  be  the  visual 
image  of  the  fruit,  or  the  verbal  image  of  the  word 
''apple."  The  images  associated  with  the  nucleus  do 
not  usually  come  to  the  foreground  of  consciousness. 
Some  of  the  images  may  be  entirely  lacking.  A  person 
bom  blind  would  have  no  visual  images  in  his  con- 


INTRODUCTION  17 

cepts ;  a  congenitally  deaf  man  would  have  no  images 
of  sound. 

When  the  concept  is  of  an  abstract  nature,  the 
nucleus  is  usually  a  verbal  image.  The  nucleus  of 
a  concept  used  in  communication  is  almost  invariably 
an  arbitrary  symbol  of  this  kind,  —  a  spoken  or 
written  word,  a  word  spelled  out  in  the  manual 
alphabet  or  in  telegraphic  code.  However,  the 
symbol  contains  no  innate  meaning ;  its  import  is 
derived  solely  from  the  mental  images  with  which 
it  is  associated. 

Cognition,  Affection,  and  Volition 

The  mental  .processes  are  sometimes  classified  under 
the  three  headings.  Cognition,  Afection,  and  Volition; 
in  other  words,  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing. 

The  cognitive  processes  are  those  that  convey  the 
elements  of  knowledge.  Such,  for  instance,  are 
Sensation,  Perception,  Conception,  Judgment,  and 
Reasoning.  (Judgment  and  Reasoning  are  merely 
more  complex  processes  of  conception  and  association.) 
Affection  is  the  emotional  coloring  of  the  cognitive 
states.  It  is  the  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness  of 
a  particular  experience,  —  the  pleasantness  in  the 
odor  of  a  rose,  the  unpleasantness  in  a  toothache. 
As  AngelP  puts  it,  cognition  gives  the  "what"; 
affection  gives  the  "how."     Cognition  and  affection 

1  "Psychology,"  p.  302. 


i8         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMEREnTG 

are   merely   different   aspects   of   the    same   mental 
states.^ 

For  the  present  discussion  the  will  may  be  regarded 
subjectively  as  the  decision  to  act.  Objectively,  it 
is  the  biological  property  of  ''irritabiHty" ;  ix.  the 
tendency  of  all  living  matter  to  express  a  sensory 
stimulus  in  a  motor  response.^  The  subject  will  be 
considered  a  little  more  fully  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  Nature  of  Thought 

Words  are  by  no  means  essential  to  thought.  The 
whole  breadth  of  the  stream  of  consciousness  may 
be  engaged  by  a  series  of  sensations  and  perceptions. 
One  may  walk  through  the  country,  drinking  in  the 
sights  and  sounds,  with  never  a  verbal  thought  in 
one's  mind.  For  conception,  too,  one  may  dispense 
with  words  entirely.  In  playing  chess,  solving  prob- 
lems in  geometry,  designing  bridges  and  machinery, 
visual  images  alone  are  necessary.  In  composing 
music,  auditory  images  suffice ;  verbal  images  would 
be  an  encumbrance. 

Meeting  a  person  in  the  street,  one  may  think  to 
himself,  ^'I  wonder  if  that  man  is  the  actor  I  saw  per- 
forming last  evening; "  yet  not  a  single  word  need  be 
contained  in  the  idea.     The  visual  impression  arouses 

^  As  will  be  explained  in  Chapter  IX,  the  emotions  are,  in  their 
last  analysis,  organic  sensations  in  which  affection  is  at  a  maximum 
and  cognition  at  a  minimujn. 

2  This  is  the  law  of  dynamo  genesis. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

the  image  of  the  actor  as  he  was  seen  upon  the  stage, 
and  the  relationship  of  identity  presents  itself  to  the 
mind  in  some  recondite  manner  that  is  no  less  in- 
scrutable than  consciousness  itself.  Again,  the  visual 
imagery  may  "reply,"  "No,  this  man  is  too  tall,  and 
too  stout."  No  words  would  be  necessary  unless 
the  thought  were  to  be  communicated  to  another 
person.  In  this  case  the  words  would  not  be  under- 
stood unless  —  as  purely  arbitrary  symbols  —  they 
aroused  the  appropriate  visual  images  in  the  mind 
of  the  auditor.  The  whole  thought-process  might 
well  occur  in  the  mind  of  a  deaf  and  dumb  man  that 
had  never  heard  or  spoken  a  word  in  the  course  of  his 
existence.  The  thought  may,  of  course,  be  accom- 
panied or  followed  by  verbal  images,  but  in  this  case 
the  words  are  visually  initiated,  just  as  they  are  visu- 
ally interpreted  by  the  person  that  hears  them 
spoken. 

To  take  another  instance :  —  A  man  stands  upon 
the  doorstep  surveying  the  sky;  then  decides  to 
reenter  the  house  for  his  umbrella.  The  thought- 
process  is  probably  as  follows:  The  black  clouds 
conjure  up  in  the  man's  mind  visual  images  of  falling 
rain  (or  he  may  have  tactual  images  of  raindrops 
striking  his  cheeks).  He  then  visualizes  himself 
in  the  act  of  holding  up  an  umbrella.  This  image  im- 
mediately redintegrates  another  visual  image  of  the 
umbrella  standing  in  a  particular  part  of  the  house, 


20         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

and  he  thereupon  decides  to  fetch  it.^  There  might 
arise  in  his  mind  the  words,  "I  must  get  my  umbrella  " ; 
but  if  they  appear,  they  do  so  after  the  decision  to  act, 
—  that  is,  when  the  thought-process  is  complete. 
The  words  have  no  intrinsic  part  in  the  thought; 
they  are  purely  epiphenomenal.  If,  by  sheer  asso- 
ciation, the  clouds  could  arouse  the  verbal  thought, 
'^It  is  going  to  rain,"  the  words  would  still  mean 
nothing  without  their  visual  associates.  If  this 
thought  were  followed  by  the  words,  ^'I  must  get  my 
umbrella,"  the  man  would  still  be  no  farther  forward 
if  there  were  lacking  concrete  images  of  his  umbrella 
and  the  place  where  it  stood.  He  would  be  in  the 
position  of  a  parrot  that  echoes  words  without  under- 
standing them. 

Words,  then,  are  not  indispensable  to  thought. 
A  congenitally  deaf  person  that  has  not  mastered 
language  can  carry  on  an  inteUigent  conversation 
in  demonstrative  and  imitative  gesture.  A  person 
may  lose  all  memory  of  words  (a  pathological  con- 
dition known  as  amnesia  verbalis,  or  verbal  amnesia), 
and  yet  maintain  a  high  order  of  intelligence. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  much  of  our 
ordinary  thought  proceeds  in  visual,  auditory,  and 
kinaesthetic  imagery.     Concrete  objects  are  thought 

^  We  might  introduce  kinaesthetic  images  at  this  point.  As  the 
subject  of  voluntary  muscular  movements  has  not  yet  been  fully 
discussed,  the  kinaesthetic  images  are  omitted. 


INTRODUCTION  21 

of  in  visual  terms,  and  their  names  may  be  totally 
ignored.^ 

Abstract  thought,  as  well  as  concrete  thought,  may 
proceed  in  non-verbal  imagery.  The  writer  finds 
that  much  of  his  abstract  thought  is  conducted  in 
visual  and  motor  terms,  the  motor  images  being 
frequently  those  of  eye-movements.  Considered  with 
reference  to  their  content,  the  images  are  meagre  and 
rudimental ;  considered  in  regard  to  their  function, 
they  are  frequently  more  cogent  than  elaborate  col- 
locations of  verbal  images.  The  writer  was  recently 
listening  to  a  discussion  concerning  a  parabola,  in 
which  the  explanation  was  somewhat  desultory.  A 
visual  image  of  a  parabola  was  in  the  mind.  During 
the  discourse  the  method  of  handHng  the  subject  was 
suddenly  criticized  —  as  it  were,  in  an  undercurrent 
of  consciousness  —  by  a  thought  whose  content  was 
nothing  more  than  a  mental  glance  across  the  arms  of 
the  parabola,  and  then  around  its  contour.  The 
following  verbal  interpretation  of  the  thought  was 
written  within  three  minutes  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  incident :  ''A  person  that  is  not  a  logical  thinker 
is  apt  to  proceed  on  the  assumption  that  his  auditor's 
mental  imagery  is  identical  with  his  own.  He  dis- 
cusses particular  details  simply  and  solely  because 
some  point  in  his  imagery  happens    to   attract  his 

^  Consequently  the  names  of  concrete  objects  are  often  forgotten 
first  in  old  age. 


22  THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

attention;  for  this  reason  the  method  of  procedure 
is  entirely  adventitious.  The  methodical  thinker,  on 
the  other  hand,  first  examines  his  mental  imagery 
and  assures  himself  that  it  is  adequate  to  the  discus- 
sion; then  he  builds  up,  piece  by  piece,  the  same 
imagery  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer.  This  done,  they 
talk  to  an  identical  purpose."  The  glance  across  the 
parabola  symboKzed  the  desultory  thought.  The 
glance  around  its  contour  represented  the  methodical 
procedure.  The  two  processes  were  mentally  con- 
trasted. As  an  interpolation,  the  thought  would  have 
been  too  involved  to  find  expression  in  words,  for  the 
attention  deviated  scarcely  a  moment  from  the  words 
of  the  speaker. 

Much  of  one's  thinking  is,  however,  conducted  in 
verbal  imagery.  Language  originated  as  a  means 
of  communication ;  ^  but  it  has  become  an  instrument 
of  thought  for  the  reason  that  words  have  become 
nuclei  of  concepts.     As  concepts  grow  more  abstract 

^  The  earliest  linguistic  efforts  are  supposed  to  have  been  imita- 
tive emotional  cries.  "When  English  woe  is  traced  back  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  wa,  it  is  found  to  be  an  actual  groan  turned  (like  the  German 
weh)  into  a  substantive  expressing  sorrow  or  distress."  (Tylor, 
''Anthropology,"  p.  126.)  A  further  advance  in  evolution  would  be 
represented  by  the  addition  of  onomatopoetic,  or  imitative,  words. 
Such,  for  instance,  are  the  words  buzz,  hum,  clatter,  ding-dong,  pewit, 
mew,  etc.  Words  of  this  kind  would  soon  lose  all  trace  of  their 
origin.  This  can  be  readily  understood  when  one  notices  the  great 
dissimilarity  between  English  and  German  words  that  were  once 
identical. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

and  general,  the  representation  becomes  more  largely 
verbal,  and  less  and  less  visual.  Ideas  of  integrity, 
thriftlessness,  incompatibility,  plasticity,  speed,  etc.,  are 
with  many  people  almost  purely  verbal  in  their  rep- 
resentation. Consequently  these  people  find  mental 
language  indispensable  for  abstract  thought ;  though 
their  concrete  ideas  may  be  portrayed  in  other  forms 
of  imagery.  Many  people  are  greatly  reduced  in 
intelligence  when  suffering  from  verbal  amnesia. 

It  is  by  no  means  essential,  however,  that  the  ab- 
stract concept  be  built  up  around  the  spoken  word. 
The  nucleus  may  just  as  well  be  a  graphic  representa- 
tion, —  a  diagram,  an  Egyptian  hieroglyph,  a  con- 
ventional scriptory  symbol.  In  the  case  of  deaf- 
mutes  it  may  be  a  gesture,  or  a  sign  in  the  manual 
alphabet,  —  mentally  represented  in  visual  or  motor 
terms.  With  the  bhnd,  the  nucleus  of  a  concept  may 
be  a  tactile  image  of  raised  print.  In  the  case  of 
the  deaf-blind  it  may  be  a  word  tapped  out  (by  the 
Braille  system)  into  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The 
imagery  may  be  in  either  kinaesthetic  or  tactile  terms, 
—  the  subject  imagines  himself  tapping  the  words  into 
the  palm  of  another  person,  or  imagines  the  words 
being  tapped  into  his  own  hand. 

The  concept-nucleus  is,  then,  often  entirely  arbi- 
trary. It  makes  no  difference  whether  a  horse  is 
called  horse,  pferd,  or  cheval.  It  makes  no  difference 
whether  the  word  integrity  is  heard  as  sound,  is  seen 


24  THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   STAMMERING 

as  marks  on  paper,  or  is  felt  as  somebody's 
finger-movements  in  one's  hand.  The  meaning  of 
these  symbols  inheres  in  the  congeries  of  associated 
mental  images  that  are  either  overtly  or  nascently 
aroused. 


CHAPTER  II 

MENTAL  TYPES:    EYE-MINDEDNESS,  EAR-MINDED- 

NESS,  ETC. 

As  Ribot  has  appropriately  remarked,  we  have 
memories  rather  than  memory.  We  have,  as  it  were, 
a  number  of  separate  and  individual  minds,  —  an 
auditory  mind,  a  visual  mind,  a  kinaesthetic  mind,  a 
tactile  mind,  and  so  on.  These  minds  may  be  con- 
jointly or  separately  active.  One  may  think  simply 
of  the  appearance  of  a  rose,  or  he  may  think  simul- 
taneously of  its  appearance,  its  fragrance,  and  the 
softness  of  its  petals. 

One  or  more  of  these  minds  may  be  entirely  lacking. 
A  blind  person  has  no  images  of  sight ;  a  deaf  person, 
no  images  of  hearing.  The  deaf-bhnd  have  images 
for  neither  of  these  senses.  A  child  that  becomes 
bhnd  before  the  age  of  six  or  seven  loses  his  visual 
memory.  Similarly,  a  child  becoming  deaf  loses  all 
imagery  of  sounds.  In  the  case  of  Laura  Bridgman 
—  who,  as  a  child,  suffered  loss  of  the  senses  of  sight, 
hearing,  taste,  and  smell  —  the  world  of  sensation 
and  memory  would  be  almost  exclusively  tactile  and 
kinaesthetic.  There  must,  then,  be  considerable 
difference  in  the  workings  of  individual  minds. 

25 


26         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"Sounds  certainly  play  a  far  more  prominent  part  in  the 
mental  life  of  the  blind  than  in  our  own.  In  taking  a  walk 
through  the  country,  the  mutations  of  sound,  far  and  near, 
constitute  their  chief  delight.  And  to  a  great  extent  their 
imagination  of  distance  and  of  objects  moving  from  one  distant 
spot  to  another  seems  to  consist  in  thinking  how  a  certain 
sonority  would  be  modified  by  the  change  of  place."  ^ 

A  congerdtally  deaf  person  could  have  no  such  ex- 
perience. For  him,  sensations  and  memory  of  hear- 
ing have  no  existence.  He  sees  things,  and  remembers 
their  appearance.  The  blind  man  hears  them,  and 
retains  the  memory  of  their  sound.  Each  is  able  to 
think  in  terms  that  the  other  is  totally  unable  to 
comprehend. 

A  person  possessed  of  all  the  different  senses  is 
able  to  experience  sensations  of  every  type.  It  does 
not  follow,  however,  that  he  can  think  equally  well 
in  all  types  of  mental  imagery.  The  different  mem- 
ories are  not  equally  developed.  Most  people  are 
practically  devoid  of  imagery  for  taste  and  smell; 
some  have  little  memory  for  sights  and  sounds.  In 
remembering  the  ocean,  one  man  sees  the  waves  as 
they  break  upon  the  shore;  another  hears  them; 
a  third  may  feel  the  damp  spray  as  it  is  blown  into 
his  face;  and  still  a  fourth  may  smell  seaweed  and 
brine.  One  man  is  eye-minded,  thinking  in  terms  of 
sight;  another  is  ear-minded,  thinking  in  terms  of 
sound;  still  another  is  motor-minded,  thinking  in 
1  James,  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  205. 


MENTAL  TYPES  27 

terms  of  muscular  movements.  The  eye-minded  man 
is  called  a  visile,  visuel,  or  visionaire;  the  ear-minded 
man,  an  audile,  auditeur,  or  auditaire;  the  motor- 
minded  man  is  a  motile,  moteur,  or  motaire.  There  is 
also  a  type  called  the  tactile.  This  type  is  found 
perhaps  almost  exclusively  among  the  blind.  The 
person  of  the  mixed  type,  the  indifferent,  thinks  equally 
well  in  any  form  of  mental  imagery. 

The  visile  remembers  best  that  which  he  sees; 
the  audile,  that  which  he  hears ;  and  the  motile  or 
tactile,  that  which  he  feels.  Actors  have  different 
ways  of  learning  their  parts.  One  reads  his  part 
from  the  printed  page,  and  learns  through  the  visual 
imagery ;  another  has  the  part  read  aloud  to  him,  and 
relies  upon  his  acoustic  memory ;  still  a  third  writes 
his  part,  and  depends  upon  his  visual  and  motor 
memories ;  or  he  may  read  the  part  aloud,  and  recall 
the  words  by  their  sound  and  feehng.  To  test  the 
spelling  of  a  word,  one  man  mentally  repeats  the  let- 
ters or  utters  them  aloud.  He  judges  of  the  accuracy 
by  sound.  Another  must  see  the  word  in  writing,  or 
must  "picture "  the  written  word  before  him.  A  third 
executes  the  writing  movements  before  he  is  sure  of 
the  spelHng.  After  a  tedious  train  journey  the  visile 
sees  the  different  incidents  of  his  tiresome  ride;  the 
audile  hears  the  clangor  and  rumble  of  the  train; 
and  for  hours  the  motile  may  feel  its  swaying.^ 

^  This     last   memory  is,   strictly  speaking,   not   in   kinaesthetic 


28         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

The  different  image-types  are  not  mutually  ex- 
clusive. The  visile  does  not  think  solely  in  visual 
imagery;  his  visual  imagery  merely  predominates. 
In  some  cases,  however,  the  thought-processes  are 
conducted  almost  exclusively  in  the  predominant 
form  of  mental  imagery. 

Not  only  is  the  prevalent  image-t5^e  different  with 
different  persons,  but  in  persons  with  the  same  type 
of  mind  the  prevalent  images  may  differ  in  intensity. 
Of  two  visiles,  one  will  have  optical  images  that  differ 
little  from  sensations  of  sight,  the  other  will  have 
images  that  are  rudimentary  and  schematic.  In  some 
cases  the  images  are  highly  colored;  in  others,  they 
appear  only  in  light  and  shade.  In  the  same  person 
the  mental  imagery  may  vary  greatly  with  the  physical 
condition.  Frequently  the  visual  imagery  becomes 
intense  and  highly  colored  during  physical  or  mental 
fatigue.  The  perspicuity  of  visual  imagery  in  iso- 
lated cases  is  demonstrated  by  feats  of  blindfold 
chess-playing.  Some  experts  will,  when  blindfolded, 
conduct  as  many  as  sixteen  or  twenty  games  simul- 
taneously, and  win  a  majority  of  them.  Each  board, 
with  the  position  of  its  men,  must  be  clearly  visual- 
ized; and  as  the  player  goes  from  board  to  board, 
he  must  remember  the  groupings  of  the  pieces  as  he 

terms.  The  images  are  of  static  sensations,  —  sensations  derived 
from  movements  of  the  whole  body  rather  than  of  parts  of  it. 
These  particular  images  seem  to  be  particularly  strong,  however,  in 
some  motiles. 


MENTAL   TYPES 


29 


left  them.  A  couple  of  such  experts  can  conduct 
an  imaginary  game  as  they  walk  upon  the  street. 
Some  artists  find  their  visual  images  so  distinct  that 
they  can  dispense  with  their  models  after  a  single 
sitting.^  Vivid  mental  images  frequently  border 
upon  hallucinations.     Gal  ton  says  : 

"A  well-known  frequenter  of  the  Royal  Institution  tells  me 
that  he  often  craves  for  an  absence  of  visual  perceptions  [images], 
they  are  so  brilliant  and  persistent."  ^ 

Galton  conducted  systematic  inquiries  into  dif- 
ferences in  mental  imagery.  He  requested  his  sub- 
jects to  describe,  among  other  things,  their  memory  of 
the  breakfast  table.  This  question  has  now  become 
classical.  The  two  following  reports,  taken  "from 
returns,  furnished  by  100  men,  at  least  half  of  whom 
are  distinguished  in  science  or  in  other  fields  of  intel- 
lectual work,"  illustrate  the  extremes  of  brilHancy  and 
obscurity  in  visual  imagery  : 

"'Thinking  of  my  breakfast  table  this  morning,  all  the  ob- 
jects in  my  mental  picture  are  as  bright  as  the  actual  scene."'  ^ 

The  second  report  runs : 

" 'My  powers  are  zero.  To  my  consciousness  there  is  almost 
no  association  of  memory  with  objective  visual  impressions.  I 
recollect  the  breakfast  table,  but  do  not  see  it. "  '  ^ 

1  See  Ballet,  "Le  langage  interieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2ded.,  pp.  36-37. 

2  "  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  and  its  Development,"  p.  97. 
'  Lac.  cit.,  p.  89.  ^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  92. 


30  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

James  quotes  the  following  introspective  descrip- 
tions by  two  of  his  psychology  students :  ^ 

"'This  morning's  breakfast  table  is  both  dim  and  bright;  it 
is  dim  if  I  try  to  think  of  it  when  my  eyes  are  open  upon  any 
object ;  it  is  perfectly  clear  and  bright  if  I  think  of  it  with  my 
eyes  closed.  AU  the  objects  are  clear  at  once,  yet  when  I  con- 
fine my  attention  to  any  one  object  it  becomes  far  more  distinct. 
—  I  have  more  power  to  recall  color  than  any  other  one  thing : 
if,  for  example,  I  were  to  recall  a  plate  decorated  with  flowers, 
I  could  reproduce  in  a  drawing  the  exact  tone,  etc.  The  color 
of  anything  that  was  on  the  table  is  perfectly  vivid.  —  There  is 
very  Httle  limitation  to  the  extent  of  my  images :  I  can  see  all 
four  sides  of  a  room,  I  can  see  all  four  sides  of  two,  three,  four, 
even  more  rooms  with  such  distinctness  that  if  you  should  ask 
me  what  was  in  any  particular  place  in  any  one,  or  ask  me  to 
count  the  chairs,  etc.,  I  could  do  it  without  the  least  hesitation.  — 
The  more  I  learn  by  heart  the  more  clearly  do  I  see  images  of 
my  pages.  Even  before  I  can  recite  the  Hues  I  see  them  so  that 
I  could  give  them  very  slowly  word  for  word,  but  my  mind  is  so 
occupied  in  looking  at  my  printed  image  that  I  have  no  idea 
of  what  I  am  saying,  of  the  sense  of  it,  etc.  When  I  first  found 
myself  doing  this  I  used  to  think  it  was  merely  because  I  knew 
the  Unes  imperfectly ;  but  I  have  quite  convinced  myself  that 
I  really  do  see  an  image.  The  strongest  proof  that  such  is 
really  that  fact  is,  I  think,  the  following : 

"'1  can  look  down  the  mentally  seen  page  and  see  the  words 
that  commence  all  the  lines,  and  from  any  one  of  these  words  I 
can  continue  the  line.  I  find  this  much  easier  to  do  if  the  words 
begin  in  a  straight  Une  than  if  there  are  breaks.'" 

The  second  description  gives  the  other  extreme  in 
visual  imagery : 

1  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  H,  pp.  56  f. 


MENTAL  TYPES 


31 


"'My  ability  to  form  mental  images  seems,  from  what  I 
have  studied  of  other  people's  images,  to  be  defective,  and 
somewhat  peculiar.  The  process  by  which  I  seem  to  remember 
any  particular  event  is  not  by  a  series  of  distinct  images,  but  a 
sort  of  panorama,  the  faintest  impressions  of  which  are  per- 
ceptible through  a  thick  fog.  —  I  cannot  shut  my  eyes  and  get  a 
distinct  image  of  anyone,  although  I  used  to  be  able  to  a  few 
years  ago,  and  the  faculty  seems  to  have  gradually  slipped 
away.  —  In  my  most  vivid  dreams,  where  the  events  appear 
like  the  most  real  facts,  I  am  often  troubled  with  a  dimness  of 
sight  which  causes  the  images  to  appear  indistinct.  —  To 
come  to  the  question  of  the  breakfast  table,  there  is  nothing 
dejfinite  about  it.  Everything  is  vague.  I  cannot  say  what  I  see. 
I  could  not  possibly  count  the  chairs,  but  I  happen  to  know  that 
there  are  ten.  I  see  nothing  in  detail.  —  The  chief  thing  is  a 
general  impression  that  I  cannot  tell  exactly  what  I  do  see. 
The  coloring  is  about  the  same,  as  far  as  I  can  recall  it,  only  wtry 
much  washed  out.  Perhaps  the  only  color  I  can  see  at  all  dis- 
tinctly is  that  of  the  table-cloth,  and  I  could  probably  see  the 
color  of  the  wall-paper  if  I  could  remember  what  color  it  was.' "  ^ 

The  following  account,  from  another  source,  shows 
strong  auditory  and  tactile  imagery :  ^ 

"*In  recalhng  a  fire  which  I  witnessed  I  can  hear  the  church 
bells  ringing  out  the  alarm,  and  can  plainly  distinguish  between 
the  deep  tones  of  one  and  the  higher  pitch  of  the  other.  All  the 
confusion  of  sounds  now  comes  to  me  —  the  shouting  from  dif- 
ferent quarters  of  the  town,  the  sound  of  footsteps  on  the  board 
sidewalks,  even  the  sound  of  my  own  breathing  and  puflSng 
and  of  those  running  by  my  side.     I  have  no  really  distinct 

1  James,  loc.  cit.,  p.  57. 

'  Scott,  "Psychology  of  Public  Speaking,"  pp.  26  f. 


32 


THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   STAMMERING 


vision  of  the  fire  itself,  but  can  hear  the  cracking  of  breaking 
glass,  the  pecuUar  roar  of  a  huge  blaze,  and  the  excited  voices 
of  the  crowd.  The  picture  is  one  of  confusion,  and  noise  pre- 
dominates. I  can  easily  see  in  imagination  the  faces  of  my 
acquaintances,  but  it  is  easier  to  hear  their  voices.  In  playing 
accompaniments  to  mandolin  pieces  upon  a  guitar,  I  derive 
almost  the  same  amount  of  pleasure  whether  the  other  instru- 
ments are  present  or  not.  My  imagination  supphes  all  the 
absent  parts.  I  can  accompany  and  hear  an  air  which  is  too 
difficult  for  me  to  render  on  a  piano  or  by  whistling;  in  my 
imagination  every  note  is  vivid.  As  for  images  of  touch,  they 
are  most  vivid  to  me  when  I  hear  or  listen  to  accounts  of  sur- 
gical operations.  If  such  accounts  refer  to  a  broken  leg,  there 
is  a  painful  sensation  in  that  part  of  my  anatomy,  and  I  fear  to 
step  with  that  leg  lest  I  hurt  it.  If  I  see  a  fly  crawhng  on 
any  one,  I  have  an  intense  desire  to  brush  it  off,  and  feel  re- 
Heved  if  I  rub  my  face  vigorously  in  the  corresponding  part.' " 

The  next  report  (a  reply  to  definite  questions)  shows 
extremely  weak  acoustic  imagery  :  ^ 

"'I  am  not  able  to  state  whether  I  hear  the  train  or  not.  I 
am  incHned  to  think  that  it  is  a  noiseless  one.  It  is  hard  for  me 
to  conceive  the  sound  of  a  bell,  for  instance.  I  can  see  the  bell 
move  to  and  fro,  and  for  an  instant  seem  to  hear  the  ding-dong, 
but  it  is  gone  before  I  can  identify  it.  When  1  try  to  conceive 
of  shouts,  I  am  like  one  groping  in  the  dark.  I  cannot  possibly 
retain  the  conception  of  a  sound  for  any  length  of  time.' " 

Wilfred  Lay  describes  his  own  auditory  imagery 
in  the  following  terms  :  ^ 

1  Scott,  loc.  cit.,  p.  24. 

2  "Mental  Imagery,"  Psychological  Review,  Monograph  Supple- 
ment No.  7,  p.  36. 


MENTAL   TYPES  33 

"I  find  the  auditory  mental  imagery  in  my  case  to  be  almost 
as  important  a  factor  in  my  mental  life  as  is  the  visual,  being 
a  mental  reproduction  of  the  sounds  I  have  heard  —  musical 
or  otherwise.  They  are  comparable  with  real  sounds  not  so 
much  in  intensity,  but?  perfectly  with  timbre,  pitch,  and  dura- 
tion. I  can  estimate  a  minute  with  much  greater  exactness 
mentally,  if  I  listen  to  the  auditory  mental  imagery  of  a  piece 
of  music  which  takes  about  a  minute  to  perform." 

The  present  writer  can  report  the  converse  in 
auditory  imagery.  Apart  from  an  auditory-motor 
memory  for  words  (in  which  the  auditory  element  is 
signally  weak)  he  has  no  memory  for  sotmd  what- 
ever. 

The  motor  memory  has  been  a  good  deal  neglected 
by  psychologists,  —  probably  because  vivid  motor 
imagery  is  somewhat  rare,  and  fugitive  images  are 
difficult  to  introspect.  The  subjoined  account  gives 
a  description  of  clear  motor  memory :  ^ 

" '  My  mental  imagery  seems  to  be  of  the  motile  type,  strongly 
characterized  by  a  sense  of  position  and  direction.  My  visual 
images  are  poor.  I  can  only  obtain  the  visual  image  of  a 
familiar  face  by  successively  giving  my  attention  to  the  separate 
features ;  the  whole  face  does  not  appear  to  my  mind.  A 
word  is  indelibly  fixed  in  my  mind  if  I  trace  its  characters  on 
the  palm  of  my  left  hand  with  the  forefinger  of  my  right.  The 
mention  of  an  author  or  a  book  brings  up  the  position  which 
that  work  occupies  on  the  shelves  with  which  I  am  familiar, 
but  does  not  call  up  the  looks  of  the  surroundings.  The  idea 
of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass  never  leaves  me,  though 

^  Scott,  "The  Psychology  of  Public  Speaking,"  p.  25. 


34  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

it  is  frequently  a  mistaken  one.  In  the  city  of  Chicago  my 
only  guide  is  this  sense  of  direction,  which  seldom  leads  me 
astray.  I  doubt  my  ability  to  locate  by  streets  or  by  adjacent 
structures,  the  buildings  with  which  I  am  most  famihar.  Words 
representing  things  that  I  have  seen  always  give  me  a  sense  of 
their  direction  and  position.  Other  words  are  invariably  as- 
sociated with  the  feeling  of  articulating  them.  In  the  act  of 
writing,  each  letter  is  mentally  pronounced.  Among  my  early 
memories  is  one  of  firing  a  revolver.  I  remember  pulling  the 
trigger,  but  not  the  report  that  followed.'" 

Galton  mentions  the  circumstance  of  a  young 
Indian's  following  the  outline  of  a  drawing  in  the 
Illustrated  News  with  the  point  of  his  knife,  in  order, 
as  he  explained,  that  he  might  "remember  the  better 
how  to  carve  it  when  he  returned  home."  ^  Obvi- 
ously he  was  resorting  to  his  motor  memory. 

The  motor  memory  appears  to  be  weak  in  the 
majority  of  persons.  Bastian,  in  the  following 
lines,  attests  the  feebleness  of  his  own  kinaesthetic 
imagery : 

"Let  him  [the  reader]  close  his  eyes,  and  with  pen  in  hand 
make  movements  in  the  air  as  though  he  were  writing  the  word 
'London.'  He  may  thus  assure  himself  that  he  has  a  set  of 
sensations  accompanying  these  movements.  After  an  interval, 
say  the  next  day,  let  him  again  close  his  eyes,  and,  without 
making  any  movement,  attempt  to  recall  'in  idea'  the  muscular 
and  other  sensations  he  previously  experienced  when  writing 
the  above-mentioned  word.  Let  him  then  contrast  his  com- 
parative powerlessness  in  this  direction,  with  his  ability  to  recall 

*  "Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  and  Its  Development,"  p.  97. 


MENTAL   TYPES  35 

in  idea  the  visual  appearance  of  this  word  when  written  or  its 
corresponding  sound."  ^ 

The  comparative  powerlessness  to  recall  kin  aes- 
thetic impressions  has  no  existence  for  the  motile. 
The  present  writer,  whose  motor  images  are  ex- 
tremely vivid,  can  recall  these  movements  with  the 
utmost  facility,  but  he  finds  it  difi&cult  to  recall 
the  visual  or  auditory  image.  The  writer  well  re- 
members that,  long  before  he  knew  anything  of 
mental  imagery,  he  would  practise  pieces  on  the 
piano  by  performing  the  more  difficult  passages  in 
kinaesthetic  imagery  of  finger-movements.  He  could 
play  from  memory ;  though  this  memory  was  purely 
visual  and  motor,  the  auditory  musical  imagery 
being  non-existent.  The  writer  takes  an  amateur's 
interest  in  card  tricks.  Recently  he  was  acquir- 
ing some  new  sleights  of  hand,  and  frequently  prac- 
tised them  in  motor  imagery  while  walking  in  the 
street. 

Sufficient  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  a  great 
diversity  in  individual  minds ;  that  human  minds  are, 
in  fact,  as  different  as  human  faces.  There  is  a  dif- 
ference both  in  the  type  of  imagery  employed,  and 
in  the  intensity  of  the  imagery  itself.  With  some 
persons  a  particular  form  of  memory  may  never  de- 
velop :  there  is  congenital  amnesia.  Olfactory  and 
gustatory  amnesia  are  too  common  to  be  abnormal. 
^  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  10. 


36  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

Musical  amnesia,  too,  occurs  with  the  greatest  fre- 
quency. It  is  recognized  as  the  lack  of  a  "musical 
ear."  Auditory  amnesia  (for  the  more  ordinary 
physical  sounds)  is  congenital  in  many  persons. 
Visual  amnesia  is  more  rare,  but,  as  James  says, 
''some  people  undoubtedly  have  no  visual  images 
at  all  worthy  of  the  name." 

As  regards  the  difference  in  intensity,  Galton  has 
estabhshed  the  fact  that  men  of  science,  or,  in  general, 
men  eminent  in  the  field  of  intellectual  work,  are 
strikingly  deficient  in  visualizing  powers.  —  Vivid 
mental  pictures  would  be  Hkely  to  divert  the  attention 
in  abstract  thought.  These  images  probably  be- 
come vestigial  because  the  thinker  attends  to  the 
relations  between  them,  and  ceases  to  regard  them 
for  their  content.  To  a  considerable  extent  visual 
images  are  supplanted  by  verbal  thought.  —  Galton 
further  ascertained  that  "the  power  of  visualizing  is 
higher  in  the  female  sex  than  in  the  male,"  and  that 
it  is  stronger  in  children  than  in  adults. 

More  extensive  inquiries  would  probably  have 
ehcited  the  fact  that  auditory  imagery  is  more  prom- 
inent in  females.  There  appears  no  a  priori  reason 
why  the  greater  intensity  should  be  Kmited  to  one 
particular  class  of  mental  imagery.  There  seems  to 
be  a  correlation,  as  regards  intensity,  between  the 
different  forms  of  mental  imagery.  From  inquiries 
among    125    artists   and    sculptors   (who   must   per- 


MENTAL   TYPES  37 

force  have  strong  visual  imagery)  Lay  found  that 
92  per  cent  could  recall  music  with  sufficient  clear- 
ness to  derive  pleasure  from  the  imagery.  Sixty- 
eight  per  cent  derived  pleasure  from  the  memory 
of  fruit  —  presumably  from  the  .  gustative  memory. 
These  percentages  are  sufficiently  high  to  suggest 
the  correlation  mentioned.  The  greater  clearness 
of  the  mental  imagery  in  the  female  sex  would  readily 
account  for  woman's  greater  conversableness,  the 
more  intense  verbal  imagery  finding  a  more  ready 
expression  in  articulate  speech.  The  same  phe- 
nomenon would  account  for  the  earlier  acquisition 
of  speech  by  girls. 

The  clearness  of  mental  imagery  is  by  no  means 
correlated  with  the  keeness  of  sense-perception.  A 
person  may  have  little  visual  memory,  but  still  be 
quick  to  recognize  faces.  He  may  have  no  memory 
for  colors,  but  may  be  able  to  distinguish  the  finest 
differences  of  shade.  He  may  be  devoid  of  auditory 
imagery,  and  yet  readily  recognize  voices.  He  may 
possess  not  a  vestige  of  musical  memory,  and  yet  have 
a  keen  appreciation  for  music.  Furthermore,  there 
is  no  essential  connection  between  the  imagery  of  the 
waking  state  and  the  imagery  of  dreams.  One  may 
be  ordinarily  destitute  of  auditory  imagery,  and  yet 
dream  in  terms  of  sound.  During  illness,  such  a  per- 
son may  have  hallucinations  or  pseudo-hallucina- 
tions of  hearing. 


38  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Among  the  curiosities  of  mind  are  certain  bizarre 
associations  of  mental  imagery.  This  associational 
process  is  known  as  syncBSthesia.  Many  people, 
when  listening  to  music,  associate  the  tones  with 
mental  images  of  color.  Thus  a  veritable  kaleido- 
scopic performance  goes  on  in  the  mind.  This 
particular  form  of  association  is  known  as  color- 
atidition,  or  chromcesthesia.  Other  people  associate 
colors  with  tastes.  Yellow  may  be  salt;  green, 
acid ;  red,  peppery ;  etc. 

Many  persons  employ  mnemonic  devices,  known  as 
number-forms,  in  recalling  numerals,  days  of  the  week, 
months  of  the  year,  etc.  When  they  think  of  a  date 
or  hear  one  mentioned,  they  immediately  associate 
it  with  its  particular  position  on  a  ^' visual'^  calendar. 
Hours  of  the  day  are  associated  with  the  position 
of  the  hands  on  a  "visual"  timepiece.  These  as- 
sociations are  invariable  in  the  same  person,  but 
are  seldom  alike  in  two  different  people.  They  occur 
more  frequently  in  females  than  in  males,  and  are 
more  common  among  children  than  among  adults. 
Usually  they  have  existed  too  far  back  for  the  memory 
to  determine  their  origin. 

"  Traces  of  the  origin  of  the  Forms  that  appear  here  and  there 
are  dominoes,  cards,  counters,  an  abacus,  the  fingers,  counting 
by  coins,  feet  and  inches  (a  yellow  carpenter's  rule  appears  in 
one  case  with  56  in  large  figures  upon  it),  the  country  surround- 
ing the  child's  home,  with  its  hills  and  dales,  objects  in  the  gar- 
den (one  scientific  man  sees  the  old  garden  walk,  and  the  nu- 


MENTAL   TYPES  39 

meral  7  at  the  tub  sunk  in  the  ground  where  his  father  filled  his 
watering  pot).  Some  associations  seem  connected  with  the 
objects  spoken  of  in  the  doggerel  verses  by  which  children  are 
often  taught  their  numbers."  ^ 

In  his  *' Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty"  Gal  ton 
gives  nearly  seventy  illustrations  —  many  of  them 
in  colors  —  representing  different  mnemonic  devices. 
The  following  is  one  of  the  descriptions  showing 
associations  between  numerals  and  colors :  ^ 

" 'Up  to  30  I  see  the  numbers  in  clear  white ;  to  40  in  gray ; 
40-50  in  flaming  orange ;  50-60  in  green ;  60-70  in  dark  blue ;  70 
I  am  not  sure  about ;  80  is  reddish,  I  think ;  and  90  is  yellow ; 
but  these  latter  divisions  are  very  indistinct  in  my  mind's  eye.' " 

In  another  case  the  numerals  from  i  to  9  appear 
in  different  colors :  i  is  black ;  2,  yellow ;  3,  pale 
brick-red;  4,  brown;  5,  blackish  gray;  6,  reddish 
brown;  7,  green;  8,  bluish;  9,  reddish  brown, 
*' somewhat  Kke  6."  The  colors  are  very  distinct 
when  the  numbers  occur  separately.  In  compounds 
they  are  less  clear.  For  historical  dates  the  num- 
bers appear  upon  a  colored  background  that  resembles 
the  particular  hue  of  the  principal  figure  indicating 
the  century. 

In  many  cases  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  par- 
ticularly the  vowels,  are  invested  with  color.  This 
subject  will  recur  in  the  final  chapter. 

*  Gahon,  "Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  and  Its  Development," 
p.  128.  ^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  141. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  VERBAL  IMAGE 

A  LANGUAGE  is  any  system  of  symbols  used  pri- 
marily for  the  expression  of  thought.  The  symbol 
is  the  nucleus  of  a  concept.  When  used  as  a  means  of 
communication,  it  is  intended  to  make  known  —  by 
means  of  its  associations  —  the  thought  passing  in 
the  mind  of  the  person  employing  it.  Language  is 
not  necessarily  speech.  We  have  a  written  language, 
a  language  of  gestures,  a  manual  language,  and  so  on. 
Had  we  lived  in  a  world  with  no  enveloping  atmos- 
phere, it  would  have  been  impossible  for  the  evolving 
race  to  communicate  by  means  of  acoustic  symbols; 
that  is,  by  vocal  speech.  With  no  air  to  convey 
sound-waves,  there  would  have  been  no  sense  of 
hearing.  For  communication,  the  race  must  per- 
force have  resorted  to  the  only  other  distance-receptor 
available,  —  the  sense  of  sight.  There  would  then 
have  developed  a  complex  language  of  gestures,  or 
perhaps  a  manual  or  a  labial  language.  Sight  and 
feeHng  would  be  the  only  two  senses  involved. 

It  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  I  that  the  concept- 
nucleus  may  be  almost  any  mental  image  whatever. 

40 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  41 

With  the  deaf-mute,  the  nucleus  may  be  a  visual 
or  kinagsthetic  image  of  certain  finger-movements. 
With  the  deaf-blind,  the  language-concept  is  still 
further  limited ;  it  is  a  tactual  or  motor  representa- 
tion of  finger-movements.  These  cases  are  admittedly 
exceptional.  They  are  cited  to  emphasize  the  fact 
that  language  is  not  necessarily  represented  in  the 
mind  by  auditory  memory-images  of  spoken  words. 

In  this  chapter,  spoken  language  will  be  the  chief 
subject  of  consideration.  Spoken  language  does  not, 
however,  involve  merely  the  sense  of  hearing.  Words 
are  distinctly  felt  as  they  are  uttered :  the  movements 
of  the  Hps,  tongue,  and  larynx  are  as  much  a  part  of 
the  verbal  concept  as  are  the  sounds  that  these  move- 
ments produce.  Further,  these  oral  movements  can 
be  seen.  Lip-reading  becom.es  an  accomplishment 
among  the  deaf,  and  for  the  interpretation  of  speech 
the  sense  of  sight  serves  them  almost  as  well  as  would 
the  sense  of  hearing.  Spoken  language,  then,  may  in- 
volve the  three  senses  of  hearing,  feeHng,^  and  vision ; 
and  the  mental  representation  may  be  in  terms  of 
mental  images  pertaining  to  any  one  of  these  senses. 
In  normal  cases,  vision  naturally  plays  no  conspicuous 
part. 

The  matter  becomes  slightly  more  complex  when 
written  language  is  considered  in  addition  to  spoken 
language.  In  the  act  of  writing,  both  kinaesthetic 
^  Accepting  feeling  for  the  time  being  as  a  unitary  sense. 


42  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

and  visual  sensations  are  present.  In  the  act  of  read- 
ing, vision  alone  is  involved. 

From  the  above  discussion  it  is  evident  that  the 
verbal  image  may  be  represented  in  any  one  of  a 
variety  of  elemental  forms,  or  that  it  may  subsist 
in  the  mind  as  a  complex  of  several  elementary  images. 
With  the  educated  person  there  is,  in  addition  to 
the  auditory  and  kinaesthetic  images  of  the  spoken 
word  (with  occasionally  a  visual  representation), 
a  visual  and  a  motor  image  of  the  written  symbol. 
It  was  shown  in  Chapter  II  that  different  t5^es  of 
images  are  present  in  different  minds  with  var3dng 
degrees  of  prominence.  Thus  it  is  naturally  to  be 
expected  that  there  should  exist  different  types  of 
verbal  thought  with  different  persons,  —  that  the 
audile  should  think  of  the  sound  of  the  word,  the 
motile  of  its  feeling,  and  the  visile  chiefly  of  its  graphic 
representation.  It  is  seldom,  of  course,  that  one  type 
of  imagery  prevails  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 
In  the  audile,  hearing  predominates ;  in  the  articulo- 
moteur,  the  memory  of  feeling  is  preponderant;  in 
the  audito-moteur J  the  two  elements  may  be  equally 
conspicuous. 

People  of  the  visual  verbal  type  are  rather  rare,  yet — 

"Some  few  persons  see  mentally  in  print  every  word  that 
is  uttered ;  they  attend  to  the  visual  equivalent  and  not  to  the 
sound  of  the  words,  and  they  read  them  ofiE  usually  as  from  a 
long  imaginary  strip  of  paper,  such  as  is  unwound  from  tele- 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  43 

graph  instruments.  The  experiences  differ  in  detail  as  to  size 
and  kind  of  type,  color  of  paper,  and  so  forth,  but  are  always 
the  same  in  the  same  person."  ^ 

These  visual  images  appear  also  in  silent  thought, 
but  they  are  more  in  evidence  when  the  subject  is 
speaking,  or  is  listening  to  the  words  of  another  person. 
Frequently  the  words  appearing  before  the  mind  are 
written  instead  of  printed. 

In  silent  thought  the  words  are,  as  a  rule,  mentally 
pronounced.  But  this  is  not  invariably  the  case; 
sometimes  the  appreciation  of  the  word  is  purely 
visual.  One  may  read  printed  words  in  much  the 
same  way  as  he  would  read  Indian  picture-writing 
or  Egyptian  hieroglyphics;  i.e.  without  necessarily 
having  recourse  to  spoken  words  or  their  memory- 
images.  The  reading  of  a  foreign  language  is  often 
largely  visual  where  knowledge  of  it  happens  to  be 
deficient ;  though  the  average  person  would,  of  course, 
improvise  a  pronunciation  that  would  serve  all  the 
purposes  of  the  most  exact  verbal  imagery.  In  read- 
ing numbers  or  foreign  names,  the  appreciation  is 
often  entirely  visual.  Few  persons  would  stop  to 
bestow  more  than  a  schematic  pronunciation  upon 
such  a  word  as  Nizhn-Udinsk.  Still  fewer  would 
accord  the  full  titulary  dignity  to  such  a  number  as 
6,328,087,628,041 ;   its  value  —  like  that  of  a  number 

^  Galton,  "Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  and  Its  Development," 
p.  97. 


44  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

expressed  in  Roman  numerals  —  would  be  under- 
stood in  a  general  way  without  being  interpreted  in 
words.  Similarly  the  visile  understands  his  mental 
words  without  pronouncing  them.  He  thinks  much 
as  the  deaf-mute  reads;  that  is,  by  associating  the 
printed  word  directly  with  the  images  that  give  it 
meaning.  But,  as  already  stated,  the  visile  usually 
pronounces  his  words  mentally  after  they  have 
appeared  in  the  visual  form.  The  process  merely 
starts  with  the  visual  image,  and  is  consummated 
when  the  word  is  mentally  heard  or  spoken. 

In  exceptional  cases  words  may  present  themselves 
to  the  visile  as  optical  images  of  articulative  move- 
ments. This  t3^e  of  verbal  memory  is  present  to 
an  extent  among  the  congenitally  deaf  that  have 
learned  oral  speech  by  sight  and  feeling.  The  visual 
images,  however,  are  accompanied  by  memories  of 
feehng,  which  undoubtedly  play  a  prominent  part 
in  verbal  thought. 

The  mental  hearing  or  mental  pronouncing  of  a 
word  represents  the  most  common  type  of  verbal 
imagery.  The  average  person  would  testify  without 
a  moment's  hesitation  that,  when  he  thinks  in  words, 
he  hears  the  words  in  his  mind.  In  most  cases  the 
statement  would  be  true ;  but  in  most  cases,  too,  it 
would  represent  but  a  part  of  the  truth.  The  average 
person  feels  his  words  just  as  much  as  he  hears  them. 
His  verbal  image  is  a  complex.     This  is  especially 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  45 

true  when  verbal  thought  is  about  to  find  expression 
in  speech.  It  will  be  best  to  treat  the  matter  sys- 
tematically and  to  show :  first,  that  the  verbal 
imagery  may  in  some  cases  be  purely  auditory ; 
secondly,  that  in  others  it  may  be  purely  kinaesthetic ; 
and  thirdly,  that  with  most  persons  it  is  composite, 
being  both  kinaesthetic  and  auditory. 

To  begin  with  the  pure  auditory  image  :  As  there 
exists  an  auditory  memory  for  music  and  the  com- 
moner physical  sounds,  so  there  exists  a  purely 
auditory  memory  for  spoken  words.  The  evidence 
in  support  of  this  fact  is  conclusive.  An  audile  will 
occasionally  hear  a  number  of  voices  simultaneously. 
Manifestly,  such  verbal  imagery  could  not  subsist 
in  kinaesthetic  terms :  it  is  heard ;  it  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  felt.  Occasionally  the  subject  imagines  that 
he  is  himself  speaking  in  concert  with  a  number  of 
other  people.  In  this  case  his  own  speech  may  be 
kinaesthetically  represented,  but  the  speech  of  the 
other  persons  must  be  purely  auditory.  The  writer 
recently  had  an  experience  of  this  kind  during  a  dream. 
He  was  listening  to  the  excellent  singing  of  a  chorus 
of  about  thirty  voices.  Occasionally  his  own  voice 
would  intrude,  much  to  the  detriment  of  the  melody. 
The  singing  of  the  chorus  was  purely  auditory ;  ^ 
the  voice  of  the  writer  was  auditory-motor. 

1  With  the  writer,  no  such  auditory  imagery  appears  during  the 
waking  state. 


46  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

As  further  evidence  that  verbal  imagery  may  be 
purely  auditory,  we  have  the  testimony  of  some 
psychologists  that  they  hear  their  words  when  they 
think.  Egger  says/  "My  internal  utterance  is  an 
imitation  of  my  voice."  In  another  passage  he  com- 
pares mental  language  to  an  echo.  Bastian  ^  finds 
that  his  verbal  imagery  is  chiefly  auditory,  and  that 
the  kinaesthetic  images  of  words  are  scarcely  recover- 
able. Titchener  ^  quotes  the  following  introspective 
description  of  auditory  verbal  imagery:  "^The  R 
seemed  to  ring  through  my  head.  Letters  came  by 
sound;  I  did  not  speak  them.'"  Many  people  have 
auditory  images  of  words  during  the  primary  memory. 
As  they  listen  to  the  after-sensation,  or  mental-echo, 
of  words  they  have  just  heard  pronounced,  they  hear 
them  "ringing  in  the  head." 

As  further  evidence  that  verbal  memory  is  often  in 
acoustic  terms,  we  have  the  fact  that  many  people 
lose  all  memory  of  words  when  that  brain-centre  is 
destroyed  in  which  auditory  memory  resides."* 

And  now  for  the  kinaesthetic  imagery.  What  proof 
have  we  of  its  importance?  It  has  sometimes  been 
argued  that,  since  the  deaf  child  remains  dumb  be- 
cause of  lack  of  hearing,  the  auditory  imagery  must 

1  "La  parole  int&ieure,"  2d  ed.,  p.  67. 

'"Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects"  and  "The  Brain  as 
an  Organ  of  Mind." 

'  "  Experimental  Psychology,"  Part  H,  Vol.  I,  p.  399. 

*  The  subject  of  brain-centres  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  47 

necessarily  be  the  most  important  element  in  verbal 
thought.  The  argument  is  fallacious.  Even  the 
person  possessed  of  hearing  may  have  practically 
no  secondary  auditory  memory,  —  yet  he  thinks  in 
words  and  speaks  with  perfect  fluency.  During  the 
learning-process,  in  such  cases,  the  child  uses  his 
kinaesthetic  and  primary  auditory  memories;  or  he 
may  use  hearing  merely  as  a  guide,  learning  chiefly 
by  feeHng  and  correcting  himself  by  ear.  In  either 
case  the  words  are  remembered  in  terms  of  feehng; 
that  is,  in  kinaesthetic  imagery. 

The  child  that  is  born  deaf  would  never  learn  to 
speak,  or  think  in  words,  if  internal  language  were 
entirely  dependent  upon  auditory  memory.  How- 
ever, the  child  is  taught  to  speak  with  considerable 
fluency  by  using  sight  and  feeHng  as  guides.  The 
words  are  then  remembered  largely  in  terms  of 
feeHng.  Educated  deaf  people  learn  to  speak  with 
such  fluency,  and  to  read  the  Hps  of  other  speakers 
with  such  readiness,  that  in  many  cases  their  con- 
versation gives  no  evidence  of  their  infirmity.  In  the 
following  words  Kussmaul  describes  a  conversation 
he  had  with  a  deaf  person  that  had  been  orally 
taught :  ^ 

"One  day  I  was  engaged  in  conversation  in  the  hospital 
for  a  considerable  time  with  an  intelligent  young  bookbinder, 
who  was  suffering  from  phthisis,  without  noticing  anything 

1  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  54. 


48  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

abnormal  in  his  speech  except  a  loud  voice  and  an  unusually 
measured  and  careful  utterance.  It  was  not  till  I  had  finished 
the  examination  and  taken  my  report  of  the  case,  that  I  learned 
to  my  astonishment  that  I  had  before  me  a  person  that  was 
absolutely  deaf."  ^ 

In  such  cases  as  this,  words  are  remembered  in 
visual  and  kinaesthetic  terms.  There  may  be  visual 
images  of  the  movements  of  the  lips  and  tongue ;  but 
the  action  of  the  larynx,  pharynx,  soft  palate,  etc., 
must  in  memory  be  "felt.''  These  organs  cannot 
well  be  observed  during  speech;  hence  their  action 
cannot  be  visually  remembered.  Visual  images  are 
not  even  necessary.  Sight  may  be  used  merely  as 
a  guide  during  the  learning-process,  and  the  words 
may  be  retained  only  in  terms  of  feeling.  Helen 
Keller,  who  was  both  blind  and  deaf,  managed  to 
master  speech  solely  by  the  sense  of  feeling.  It  is 
evident  that  her  words  must  be  retained  solely  as 
kinaesthetic  images.^ 

1  The  speech  of  the  educated  deaf  is  usually  lacking  in  proper 
accentuation  and  inflection,  —  elements  of  speech  that  are  not 
readily  felt.  There  is  a  somewhat  impartial  distribution  of  stress ; 
thus  the  enunciation  comes  to  resemble  that  of  French,  in  which 
articulation  is  vigorous  and  stress  inconspicuous. 

2  Miss  Helen  Keller  was  deprived  of  sight  and  hearing  at  the 
age  of  nineteen  months.  Some  years  later  she  was  taught  to  speak 
"by  feeling."  In  spite  of  her  disabilities  she  managed  to  acquire  a 
thorough  education.  She  graduated  from  Radcliile  College  with 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  in  1904.  Miss  Keller  has  on  several 
occasions  spoken  from  the  public  platform.  See  her  "Story  of  my 
Life,"  New  York,  1908. 


THE   VERBAL  IMAGE  49 

Among  normal  persons,  the  motile  may  remember 
his  words  almost  exclusively  in  terms  of  feeling.  If  he 
happens  to  be  deficient  in  auditory  and  visual  memory, 
there  is  no  other  way  in  which  he  can  remember  them. 
Speaking  of  his  mental  words,  Dodge  says  :  ^ 

"I  spoke  them.  They  were  rudimentary,  and  for  the  most 
part  indistinct." 

And  again :  ^ 

"It  is  just  as  though  I  spoke  the  words  —  except  for  the 
fact  that  the  acoustic  element  is  lacking.  Often  there  are 
actual  movements  of  the  lips  and  tongue.  More  frequently 
I  am  uncertain  whether  these  have  taken  place.  In  no  case 
were  visual  images  or  images  of  writing-movements  detected. 
Acoustic  images  were  just  as  little  in  evidence.  The  words 
had  neither  timbre,  pitch,  nor  acoustic  intensity.  However, 
they  were  not  mere  skeleton- words,  such  as  pure  movement- 
images  would  represent ;  they  possessed  on  the  contrary  a 
certain  fulness  that  distinguished  them  in  a  characteristic 
manner  from  other  memory-images  of  simple  mouth-move- 
ments." 

On  a  later  page  he  says :  ^ 

"I  am  able  to  imagine  quite  clearly  the  movements  that  I 
make  in  producing  certain  sounds,  and  I  can  analyze  their 
separate  elements.  Nevertheless,  what  is  analyzed  is  cer- 
tainly not  auditory  imagery." 

His  verbal  thought  is  not  represented  by  visual 
images  of  printed  words,  for  according  to  the  author's 

^  "Die  Motorischen  Wortvorstellungen,"  p.  10. 
^  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  11-12.  ^  Loc.  cU.,  p.  34. 


50         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

account  his  visual  images  are  inadequate   for   this 

purpose : 

"It  is  easy  for  me  to  command  clear  optical  images  of  printed 
or  written  letters.  I  can  even  visualize  small  groups  of  letters, 
or  short  words.  This  faculty  for  visualizing  with  uniform  clear- 
ness ceases  with  words  of  four  or  five  letters.  I  cannot  always 
picture  four  letters  at  once  with  uniform  distinctness.  When 
the  words  are  longer,  I  get  a  general  picture  —  more  or  less 
distinct  —  in  which  the  letters  become  clear  in  quick  succes- 
sion. It  is  not  meant  that  a  single  letter  becomes  clear  and 
then  totally  disappears,  but  rather  that  a  small  group  of  letters 
grows  clear  in  the  confused  picture,  fading  again  as  another 
group  rises  into  view.  The  speed  of  this  emergence  is  deter- 
mined by  the  audible  or  silent  speech.  The  emergence  itseK 
usually  takes  place  in  syllables."  ^ 

It  is  evident  from  this  account  that  Dodge  does  not 
rely  on  his  visual  memory  of  words,  but  that  his 
verbal  memory  is  purely  kinaesthetic. 

Another  writer,  Strieker,  describes  his  verbal 
imagery  as  being  purely  kinaesthetic.  He  compares 
himself  when  engaged  in  silent  thought  to  a  piano- 
player  that  runs  his  fingers  over  the  keys  without 
actually  striking  them.  The  thought  is  portrayed 
in  movement,  not  in  sound. ^  He  says  of  an  imaginary 
conversation : 

"I  speak  first  for  myself  in  motor  word-images;  then  I 
reply  for  the  other  party  —  also  in  motor  word-images."  ^ 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  15. 

2"Studien  iiber  die  Sprachvorstellungen,"  p.  16. 

^Loc.  cit.,  p.  93. 


THE   VERBAL  IMAGE  51 

Strieker's  primary  auditory  memory  seems  to  be 

clear,  for  he  says : 

"Immediately  after  a  stranger  has  spoken  to  me,  I  can 
easily  recall  his  voice  and  the  words  that  he  uttered.  This 
memory  gradually  fades.  The  words  remain  in  my  memory; 
but  not  always  the  voice.  For  instance,  I  can  recall  the  exact 
words  with  which  a  beggar  accosted  me  in  the  street  a  few  days 
ago;  I  can  recall  his  appearance,  but  I  have  not  the  faintest 
memory  of  his  voice."  ^ 

Strieker's  secondary  memory  is  apparently  purely 
kinaesthetic ;  for  he  says  of  it : 

"When  I  close  my  eyes  to  assist  concentration,  and  allow 
some  verbal  thought  to  pass  through  my  mind,  a  familiar  verse, 
for  instance  (and  ignore  meanwhile  specific  occasions  upon 
which  I  have  heard  it) ;  then  I  seek  in  vain  for  any  memory  of 
sound  that  attaches  itself  to  the  words."  ^ 

With  Strieker,  distinctions  between  similar  words  are 
felt,  and  not  heard,  for  he  says : 

"Despite  the  manifold  differences  displayed  by  the  letters 
B,  P,  and  M  when  they  are  actually  pronounced,  I  find  no 
difference  in  them  in  thought  but  the  characteristic  labial 
feelings.  No  matter  how  carefully  I  examine  the  words  'pater  ' 
and  'mater'  in  silent  thought,  I  find  that  the  only  difference 
between  them  is  the  feehng  of  the  p  or  the  w."  ^ 

Strieker,  like  Dodge,  does  not  think  in  visual  images 
of  words.  His  verbal  memory  is  almost  exclusively 
kinaesthetic.^ 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  19.  2  i^Qf^  cit.,  p.  19. 

^  Loc.  cU.,  p.  10.  *  Loc.  cit.,  p.  20. 


52         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

The  above  introspections  furnish  convincing  evi- 
dence in  support  of  a  purely  kinaesthetic  verbal  mem- 
ory. If  further  e\ddence  were  necessary,  it  could  be 
found  in  the  characteristics  of  certain  pathological 
cases.  One  or  two  of  these  will  be  cited  in  a  later 
chapter.  In  such  cases,  which  are  admittedly  rare, 
it  is  foimd  that  the  patient  retains  command  of 
verbal  thought  and  speech  despite  the  fact  that  the 
brain-centre  is  destroyed  in  which  the  auditory  word- 
images  were  stored.  It  is  obvious  that  the  word- 
memories  can  remain  only  in  terms  of  feeling.  The 
patient  is  an  articulo-moteur . 

But  the  average  person  is  neither  an  articulo- 
moteur  nor  an  audile.  He  is  an  audito-moteur ,  and 
his  verbal  imagery  is  of  the  mixed  type.  In  recalHng 
words,  he  both  feels  and  hears  them.  This  fact  is 
convincingly  demonstrated  by  the  various  speech- 
disturbances  that  follow  the  destruction  or  impair- 
ment of  either  of  the  brain-centres  that  preside  over 
the  kinaesthetic  and  auditory  verbal  memories.  When 
either  of  these  centres  is  destroyed,  internal  language 
is  usually  impaired.  When  only  the  auditory  centre 
is  impaired,  the  patient  often  utters  unintelligible 
gibberish  (jargon-aphasia).  If  his  verbal  memory 
had  been  purely  auditory,  he  would  have  become  mute. 
If  it  had  been  purely  kinaesthetic,  his  language  would 
have  remained  unaffected.  But  the  fact  that  his 
speech  becomes  distorted  shows  conclusively  that  the 


THE   VERBAL  IMAGE  53 

kinaesthetic  centre  is  acting  without  the  directory 
influence  of  the  auditory  centre.  These  facts  show 
that  the  cooperation  of  both  centres  is  usually  requi- 
site for  normal  internal  speech.  The  matter  will  be 
better  understood  after  a  perusal  of  the  two  suc- 
ceeding chapters. 

Introspection  reveals  the  presence  of  both  the  motor 
and  auditory  elements  in  the  average  person.  Among 
nearly  a  hundred  persons,  Strieker  found  only  one 
that  was  conscious  of  no  feehng  in  the  lips  when 
mentally  pronouncing  the  letters  M,  B,  and  P. 
Among  nearly  sixty,  only  two  failed  to  detect  these 
feelings  when  reading.^  The  average  audito-moteur 
is  unable  to  think  the  explosive  and  labial  consonants 
clearly  when  the  mouth  is  open  and  the  tongue  pro- 
truded. The  unnatural  position  of  the  articulative 
organs  seems  to  obstruct  the  incipient  movements 
that  accompany  articulation.  Such  words  as  bubble, 
wobble,  toddle,  mimicry,  kindergarten,  etc.,  then  appear 
thick  and  unnatural,  —  as  though  one  were  speaking 
them  with  the  hps  apart.^ 

With  many  audito-moteurs  the  motor  tendency  is 
so  pronounced  that  actual  movements  of  the  speech- 
organs  occur  during  silent  thought,  and  in  exceptional 
cases  people  may  talk  aloud  instead  of  thinking  to 
themselves. 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p,  49. 

2  The  difficulty  disappears  if  the  test  is  long  continued. 


54         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Concerning  the  articulatory  tendency  Bain  says:  ^ 

"When  we  recall  the  impression  of  a  word  or  sentence,  if 
we  do  not  speak  it  out,  we  feel  the  twitter  of  the  organs  just 
about  to  conie  to  that  point.  The  articulating  parts  —  the 
IsLrynx,  the  tongue,  the  lips  —  are  sensibly  excited ;  a  suppressed 
articulation  is  in  fact  the  material  of  our  recollection,  the  in- 
tellectual manifestation,  the  idea  of  speech." 

And  thus  Wyllie:^ 

"I  find,  when  I  mentally  sing  a  song,  with  or  without  its 
words,  that  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  my  pomum  adami  from 
moving  upwards  when  the  melody  passes  into  its  highest 
notes;  but  at  the  same  time,  I  am  most  clearly  conscious  of 
the  varying  pitch  and  cadence  of  the  internal  voice." 

The  present  writer  can  distinctly  feel  the  movements 
of  the  larynx  when  thinking  a  vowel  with  rising  in- 
flection. The  auditory  image,  however,  is  weak. 
After  thinking  the  vowel  for  a  minute  there  is  a  dis- 
tinct aching  in  the  larynx,  due  beyond  doubt  to  the 
tension  of  the  vocal  cords.  The  writer  has  experi- 
enced the  same  aching  sensation  in  the  larynx  after 
conversing  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  with  a  man  that 
was  compelled  by  a  throat  affection  to  whisper. 

This  last  phenomenon  gives  proof  of  sympathetic 
movements  during  the  act  of  listening.  Many- 
psychologists  have  described  this  inchoate  articula- 
tion.    Thus  Strieker,  for  instance:  ^ 

1  Bain,  "The  Senses  and  the  Intellect,"  4th  ed.,  p.  357. 

2  Wyllie,  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  p.  237.  ^  j^q(.  ^^^^  p  ^g^ 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  55 

"I  noticed  these  feelings  first  of  all  in  the  lips  when  any  one 
read  to  me  with  clear  articulation.  Each  M,  P,  or  B  of  the 
speaker  was  accompanied  by  these  labial  feelings.  Soon  after- 
wards I  noticed  that,  when  Hstening  to  clearly  articulated 
speech,  I  followed  each  word  with  an  internal  articulation  of 
my  own." 

Strieker  finds  further  evidence  of  this  concomitant 
articulation  in  the  fact  that  he  remembers  words 
long  after  he  has  forgotten  their  sound. 

Bain  also  makes  reference  to  these  sympathetic 
speech-movements : 

''While  intently  listening  to  a  speech,  we  are  liable  to  follow 
the  speaker  with  a  suppressed  articulation  of  our  own,  whereby 
we  take  the  train  of  words  into  a  vocal  embrace,  as  well  as  re- 
ceive it  passively  on  the  sense  of  hearing."  ^ 

The  foregoing  arguments  should  establish  the  prac- 
tical universality  of  the  motor  tendency  in  internal 
speech.  Internal  audition  is,  however,  no  less  prev- 
alent. Just  as  Strieker  has  found  by  inquiry  that 
ninety-nine  persons  in  a  hundred  are  conscious  of 
the  motor  tendency  in  silent  speech,  so  the  present 
writer  has  ascertained  that  no  less  a  proportion  are 
clearly  conscious  of  internal  audition.  However, 
this  fact  receives  general  recognition;  it  would  be 
supererogatory  to  argue  in  favor  of  it.  Even  Strieker 
and  Dodge  are  not  entirely  devoid  of  auditory 
imagery.     The  latter  says  of  his  aural  memory ; 

1  Loc.  cii.,  p.  371. 


56         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"In  an  imperfect  manner  I  am  able  to  redintegrate  auditory 
images.  I  can  give  my  verbal  images  the  timbre  of  my  father's 
voice,  —  but  this  only  with  difficulty,  and  the  attempts  are 
often  fruitless.  A  visual  image  of  my  father  is  an  invariable 
prerequisite.  I  know,  for  instance,  that  my  father  has  often 
employed  the  expression  'My  boy'  when  conversing  with  me. 
But  I  find  no  trace  of  an  auditory  memory  of  my  father's  voice 
when  I  express  the  silent  judgment,  'My  father  has  often  used 
the  phrase,  "My  boy."  '  Even  with  the  greatest  pains  I  can- 
not imagine  the  peculiarities  of  his  voice.  This  is  possible 
only  when  I  have  a  definite  visual  image  of  my  father,  and 
imagine  a  specific  occasion  for  his  speaking."  ^ 

And  again : 

"Immediately  after  I  have  heard  some  one  speak,  I  can 
recall  his  words  with  the  greatest  clearness.  But  these  fade 
quickly,  and  usually  no  auditory  memory  remains.  Similarly, 
it  is  difficult  for  me  to  obtain  an  auditory  memory  of  my  own 
voice.  When  I  speak  a  word  and  attend  especially  to  the 
auditory  impressions,  I  am  able  for  some  time  afterward  to 
reproduce  the  acoustic  image  at  will.  But  this  ability  dis- 
appears, too,  after  a  while;  and  all  traces  of  sound  are  soon 
lost  in  the  imagery  of  movement."  ^ 

The  above  paragraphs  make  it  clear  that  Dodge 
is  not  entirely  lacking  in  auditory  imagery ;  though 
the  imagery  is  obviously  weak.  Dodge  gives  it  as 
his  opinion  that  the  fulness  and  roundness  of  his 
verbal  images  subsists  not  only  in  vibration-feelings 
in  the  larynx  and  thorax,  but  also  in  "a  kind  of  un- 
localized,    evaporated    auditory   imagery"    that   be- 

1  Dodge,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  15-16.  ^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  17. 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  57 

comes  only  in  exceptional  circumstances  a  clear  and 
independent  reproduction. 

Strieker,  likewise,  is  not  entirely  destitute  of  audi- 
tory memory.  He  is  sometimes  able  to  recall  a 
person's  voice  by  first  visualizing  his  figure,  or  by 
clearly  imagining  the  circumstances  under  which 
particular  words  were  spoken.  The  memory  is  then 
of  words  as  uttered  upon  a  particular  occasion,  rather 
than  of  words  as  having  a  specific  meaning. 

An  important  fact  must  be  noted  at  this  point: 
In  recalling  the  voice  of  a  particular  person,  the  audito- 
moteur  does  not  necessarily  resort  to  pure  auditory 
imagery.  Strieker's  "open-mouth  test"  will  show 
that  the  labial  and  explosive  consonants  are  as  much 
motor  as  ever.  The  characteristic  timbre  of  the  voice 
is  represented  only  in  the  vowel ;  and  it  is  this  part 
of  the  word  that  is  mentally  heard.  The  writer  finds 
that  this  is  the  case  with  his  own  imagery.  He  can 
on  rare  occasions  recall  the  peculiar  pronunciation 
that  a  certain  Oriental  friend  accords  to  his  name. 
But  introspection  shows  that  he  is  himself  mentally 
pronouncing  the  word,  and  that  the  characteristic 
quality  of  the  remembered  voice  is  present  only  in 
the  vowel  of  the  last  syllable.  The  case  is  similar 
with  the  primary  memory.  The  word  is  present  as 
an  auditory-motor  image ;  the  consonants  are  dis- 
tinctly felt,  but  the  characteristic  auditory  element 
inheres  only  in  the  vowel. 


58         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

From  the  foregoing  arguments  it  should  be  clear 
that  the  average  person  is  an  audito-moteur.  His 
verbal  imagery  is  of  the  mixed  type.  When  thinking 
silently  in  words,  he  both  hears  them  and  feels  them.^ 
If  his  acoustic  memory  is  strong,  he  may  have  a  sound- 
image  of  the  entire  word,  and  kinaesthetic  images  of 
only  the  grosser  muscular  movements;  i.e.  chiefly 
of  the  consonants.  His  verbal  image  will  then  have 
a  binary,  or  dual,  form.  For  consciousness,  however, 
one  image  will  be,  as  it  were,  superposed  upon  the 
other,  and  the  images  will  appear  to  the  mind  as  a 
unit  —  or,  if  introspection  is  keen,  as  a  composite 
image.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  acoustic  memory 
is  weak,  there  will  be  an  auditory  image  of  only  the 
vowel.  The  consonants  and  grosser  muscular  move- 
ments of  speech  will  be  represented  in  kinaesthetic 
imagery,  and  the  verbal  imagery  will  in  actuality  be 
composite.^    In  either  case  the  presence  of  the  audi- 

*  There  appears  to  be  also  an  auditory-motor  musical  memory. 
Some  people  are  unable  to  recall  a  tune  without  mentally  humming 
it,  singing  it,  or  playing  it  upon  a  musical  instrument.  The  sounds 
can  be  redintegrated  only  when  they  are  associated  with  the  kin- 
aesthetic memory  of  specific  movements.  The  movements  are  prob- 
ably recalled  first,  the  sounds  being  awakened  by  association. 

2  Various  phenomena  indicate  that  the  word  is  normally  repre- 
sented in  the  brain  by  a  plurality  of  cells.  One  may,  for  instance, 
remember  the  initial  consonant  of  a  word  (in  terms  of  feeling),  but 
be  unable  to  recall  the  word  in  its  entirety.  One  may  interchange 
the  initial  consonants  of  contiguous  words  and  syllables  {achoppe- 
mevU  syllabique),  etc.,  etc. 


THE  VERBAL  IMAGE  59 

tory  image  will  be  required  for  normal  verbal  thought 
and  normal  oral  expression. 

The  feeling-element  of  speech  has  in  this  discussion 
been  treated  as  exclusively  kinaesthetic.  This  has  been 
done  for  the  sake  of  simphcity.  In  reality,  the  feeling- 
element  does  not  comprise  merely  the  consciousness  of 
muscular  movement  or  muscular  action,  but  it  em- 
braces in  addition  tactual  sensations,  —  sensations  of 
contact,  friction,  and  the  hke.  The  fricatives,  /,  v,  s, 
th,  etc.,  are  as  much  tactile  in  their  representation  as 
they  are  kinaesthetic.  The  matter  is  more  readily  un- 
derstood by  regarding  the  sensations  rather  than  the 
mental  images.  In  pronouncing  the  letter  /,  for  in- 
stance, the  only  muscular  movement  involved  (neglect- 
ing respiration)  is  that  of  bringing  the  lower  Hp  into 
contact  with  the  upper  teeth.  In  this  act  one  is  con- 
scious of  the  contraction  of  the  labial  muscles ;  but  one 
is  also  conscious  of  certain  characteristic  cutaneous 
sensations.  After  the  initial  movement  has  been  per- 
formed, there  is  practically  no  muscular  activity  in  the 
articulative  organs.  There  may  be  a  sHght  tension  in 
the  muscles  of  the  lower  lip  from  which  one  could  de- 
rive kinaesthetic  sensations ;  but  if  the  consonant  is  con- 
tinuously produced,  the  more  conspicuous  sensations  are 
undoubtedly  tactual.  The  tactual  impressions  in  this 
case  consist  of  the  sensation  derived  from  the  contact 
of  the  upper  teeth  with  the  lower  Hp,  and  the  sensation 


6o         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

produced  by  the  passage  of  the  air  through  the  labial 
aperture.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  a  continuous  /  — 
since  it  occasions  marked  tactual  sensations  in  actual 
enunciation  —  must  be  mentally  represented  largely 
in  tactual  terms.  An  /  that  is  not  continuously  pro- 
duced contains  these  sensations  no  less  than  one  that 
is  prolonged ;  there  is  a  difference  merely  in  duration. 
Similar  arguments  can  be  adduced  in  support  of  the 
tactual  element  in  all  the  continuous  consonants. 

The  explosive  consonants  involve  a  greater  amount 
of  muscular  activity ;  but  they  contain,  nevertheless,  a 
marked  tactual  element.  Taking  the  letter  h,  for  ex- 
ample, we  find  that  a  tactual  sensation  is  derived  from 
the  contact  of  the  two  lips.  As  the  labial  pressure  is 
increased  to  resist  the  air-column,  there  is  naturally  an 
increased  muscular  tension  giving  rise  to  kinaesthetic 
sensations.  But  there  is  also  an  increased  pressure 
by  the  air-column  upon  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  lips, 
and  this  produces  a  characteristic  tactual  impression. 
The  explosive  consonants,  then,  as  well  as  the  con- 
tinuous consonants,  give  rise  to  tactual  sensations,  and 
they  are  represented  by  tactual  images  in  the  mind. 

There  is  no  strict  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  kinaesthetic  and  tactual  elements.  Kinaesthetic 
sensations  may  be  regarded  as  tactual  sensations  from 
muscular,  tendinous,  and  articular  surfaces.  They 
are  internal  tactual  sensations,  or  tactual  sensations 
derived  exclusively  from  the  muscular  system. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  BRAIN 

The  brain  comprises  the  cerebrum  and  the  cere- 
bellum (or  little  brain).  The  cerebellum  Hes  below 
the  cerebrum,  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  cranium. 
It  stands  in  anatomical  connection  with  the  cerebrum 
and  spinal  cord.  The  cerebrum  is  divided  by  the 
median  fissure  into  two  more  or  less  symmetrical 
hemispheres.  It  presents  a  surface  characterized  by 
numerous  irregular  furrows  and  convolutions.  The 
cerebellum  contains  three  definite  lobes,  of  w^hich 
the  median  lobe  is  rudimentary.  To  the  naked  eye 
the  cerebellum  presents  a  regular,  laminate  structure. 
The  great  mass  of  the  brain  consists  of  white  matter, 
composed  chiefly  of  fibres.  There  is  a  superficial 
layer  of  gray  matter,  two  or  three  millimeters  thick. 
This  surface-layer  —  consisting  chiefly  of  cells  — 
is  called  the  cortex. 

The  principal  fissures  of  the  cerebrum  are  the  median 
fissure,  the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  and  the  fissure  of  Ro- 
lando. These  last  two,  with  the  parieto-occipital 
fissure,  divide  the  external  surface  of  the  hemisphere  ^ 

1  In  discussing  the  fissures  and  convolutions,  one  hemisphere  is 
taken  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 

6i 


62         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

into  its  four  principal  lobes.  These  are  the  frontal, 
parietal,  temporal,  and  occipital  lobes,  named  after 
the  bones  of  the  skull  to  which  they  lie  contiguous. 

The  frontal  lobe  comprises  the  first,  second,  and 
third  ^  frontal  convolutions,^  and  the  precentral 
convolution,  which  lies  just  anterior  to  the  Rolandic 
fissure.  The  temporal  lobe  embraces  the  ventral 
aspect  of  the  hemisphere.  It  contains  the  first, 
second,  and  third  ^  temporal  convolutions.  The  oc- 
cipital lobe  comprises  the  first,  second,  and  third  ^ 
occipital  convolutions,  —  in  the  posterior  part  of  the 
hemisphere.  The  parietal  lobe  lies  posterior  to  the 
fissure  of  Rolando.  It  contains  the  postcentral  con- 
volution, the  superior  parietal  lobule,  the  supra-mar- 
ginal gyrus,  and  the  angular  gyrus. 

The  mesial  aspect  of  the  hemisphere  ^  displays  the 
marginal  gyrus,  the  gyrus  fornicatus,  the  hippo- 
campal  gyrus,  the  uncinate  gyrus,  and  the  quadilateral 
and  cuneate  lobules.  The  island  of  Reil,  another  small 
group  of  convolutions,  is  found  at  the  bottom  of  the 
fissure  of  Sylvius. 

The  gray  cortex  of  the  brain  follows  each  of  the 
different  folds  and  convolutions;  thus  the  entire 
surface  of  the  brain  is  composed  of  a  layer  of  cells. 

The  cells  of  the  cortex  are  in  direct  connection  with 
the  white  fibres  that  compose  the  great  mass  of  the 

1  Also  designated  superior,  middle,  and  inferior. 

2  See  Figure  i.  'See  Figure  2. 


THE  BRAIN 


63 


64 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 


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THE  BRAIN  65 

brain.     The  cell-body  and  its  numer-   ^'^'^^^^^^^Z'- 
ous  filaments  and  ramifications  con-       j,  ^\,  t'.S.  -{^ 
stitute  a  functional  unit,  known  as  a 
neurone.^     The  brain  consists  simply 
of  neurones,  with  the  neuroglia  —  or 
supporting  tissue  —  and  a  rich  supply     hl.Wlp^'^rfV^k 
of  blood-vessels.     The  filaments  pro-       \'^j^^\^'fe^ 
ceeding   from    the    cell-body  vary  in 
length  from  the  merest  fraction  of  a 
millimeter  to  several  feet,  the  longer 
fibres,  of  course,  extending  beyond  the 
brain.      The  shorter   filaments   form 
connections  between  the  different  cells 
themselves  (these  are  the  association 
fibres),  while  the  longer   fibres   con- 
vey stimuh  from  the  sense-organs  or 
carry  impulses  to  the  muscles.     The 
fibres  that  convey  the  ingoing  stimu-    ^^'^i 'f  ^*-">72 
lus  are  known  as  sensory,  or  afferent,    "C-'t^*  **5t',  ^'^'C 
nerves.      Those    conveying   the   out-    iV'**-:'iJ^i^*f*»?'i 
going  stimulus  are  known  as  motor,    v"l:v^iii^^^;;Vi? 
or  efferent,  nerves.  f'^^^wl^i/^**, 

1  Donaldson  estimates  that  there  are  not  less      \  rM^^,  J)^* 
than   three   thousand   million   neurones   in   the        \\  ^         S/" 
central  nervous  system.     (See  "The  Growth  o^      '^  "i     *  U    4^V 


the  Brain.")  ^'^      ^^V 

Figure  3  represents  the  cells  of  the  cerebral 
cortex  magnified  114  diameters  (Farrier,  after 
Be  van  Lewis).  Fig.  3 


^\^"^1 


66         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Thus  there  are  three  distinct  classes  of  nerve-fibres, 
—  the  association-fibres,  the  sensory  fibres,  and  the 
motor  fibres.  The  association-fibres  may  be  sub- 
divided into  long  and  short  unilateral  fibres,  and 
transverse  fibres.  The  transverse  fibres  connect 
convolutions  in  the  opposite  hemispheres.^  The  long 
unilateral  fibres  unite  cells  in  different  convolutions  of 
the  same  hemisphere.  The  short  fibres  connect  cells 
that  are  practically  contiguous. 

There  is  a  decussation  of  the  sensory  and  motor 
nerve-fibres,  so  that  the  left  hemisphere  of  the  brain 
stands  in  connection  with  sense-organs  and  muscles 
of  the  right  side  of  the  body,  while  the  right  hemi- 
sphere of  the  brain  is  connected  with  the  left  side  of 
the  body.  There  is  an  exception  in  the  case  of  the 
olfactory  tracts.  The  case  of  vision  is  somewhat 
anomalous.  The  left  half  of  each  retina  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  left  hemisphere  of  the  brain,  while  the 
right  halves  of  the  retinae  are  connected  with  the  right 
hemisphere.  Thus  an  injury  to  the  visual  area  in  the 
left  cortex  results  in  bHndness  to  the  left  halves  of 
both  retinae;  consequently  there  is  an  obliteration 
of  the  right  field  of  vision. 

As  already  stated,  the  muscles  of  one  side  of  the 
body  are  connected  with  the  hemisphere  of  the  op- 
posite side.     The  right  hand  is  moved  through  the 

^  The  principal  band  of  transverse  fibres  is  known  as  the  corpus 
callosum.     (See  Fig.  2.) 


THE   BRAIN  67 

activity  of  cells  in  the  left  cortex;  the  left  hand  is 
moved  through  the  activity  of  cells  in  the  right  cortex. 
This  principle  holds  good  for  movements  that  are 
executed  unilaterally.  Movements  that  are  invari- 
ably executed  bilaterally  are  represented  in  only  one 
hemisphere  of  the  brain.^  This  is  true  of  the  articu- 
lative  movements  concerned  in  speech.  In  right- 
handed  persons,  speech-movements  are  initiated  from 
the  left  hemisphere.  In  left-handed  persons,  they  are 
initiated  from  the  right  hemisphere. 

This  brings  us  to  the  matter  of  cerebral  locaHzation. 
It  is  found  that  the  brain-cells  controlling  particular 
muscles  of  the  body  or  subserving  particular  sense- 
organs  are  not  scattered  promiscuously  throughout 
the  cortex,  but  are  localized  in  fairly  well-defined 
brain-areas  or  convolutions.  This  fact  has  been 
demonstrated  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It  has  been 
established  by  experiments  performed  upon  animals 
—  usually  monkeys.  After  the  cortex  has  been  ex- 
posed, different  areas  are  electrically  stimulated. 
It  is  found  that  stimulation  of  definite  areas  of  the 
brain  results  in  the  contraction  of  definite  muscles. 
Certain  areas  control  the  movements  of  the  leg; 
others  control  the  movements  of  the  arm.  These 
areas  can  be  subdivided,  and  definite  localities  assigned 

^  This  statement  is  capable  of  qualification.  To  avoid  complica- 
tion and  irrelevant  discussion  the  principle  is  stated  without  its 
restrictions. 


68         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

for  the  control  of  the  shoulder,  forearm,  hand,  index 
finger,  thumb,  etc.  The  movements  occur,  of  course, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body.  When  the  stimulus 
is  appKed  to  the  area  that  controls  the  muscles  of  the 
face,  the  resultant  movements  are  generally  bilateral. 
The  sensory  areas  have  been  determined  by  extirpa- 
tion of  different  portions  of  the  cortex.  Excision  of  the 
occipital  areas  leads  to  bHndness ;  destruction  of  the 
temporal  areas  induces  loss  of  hearing.  Ablation  of 
a  motor  area,  of  course,  results  in  paralysis  of  the  re- 
lated muscles. 

Investigations  upon  animals  have  been  confirmed 
by  experiments  performed  upon  human  beings  when 
the  cortex  has  been  exposed  by  injury.  The  motor 
areas  can  be  determined  by  electrical  stimulation. 
An  injury  or  tumor  in  these  same  areas  results  in 
paralysis.  An  injury  in  one  of  the  sensory  centres 
results  in  bhndness,  deafness,  or  in  loss  of  the  images 
of  sight  or  hearing,  according  to  the  seat  of  the  damage. 

The  site  of  the  sensory  centres  is  further  indicated 
by  cerebral  atrophy.  If  a  child  is  born  blind  or  deaf, 
his  visual  or  auditory  brain-centre  never  becomes 
functionally  mature.  In  many  cases  atrophy  or 
softening  takes  place  in  the  centre  affected.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  degenerated  area  indicates,  of  course,  the 
seat  of  the  sensory  centre 

The  site  of  the  different  cerebral  centres  has  like- 
wise been  demonstrated  by  the  embryonal  method. 


THE   BRAIN  69 

Different  fibres  acquire  their  myelin  sheaths  at  dif- 
ferent periods;  thus  they  can  be  traced  from  the 
peripheral  senses-organs  to  their  termination  in  the 
cortex. 

The  general  motor  area  of  the  brain  is  situated  in 
the  Rolandic  region.  Figure  4  shows  on  the  human 
brain  the  various  subdivisions  of  the  motor  area  as 
ascertained  by  Beevor  and  Horsley  through  experi- 
ments on  the  bonnet  monkey.  The  researches  of 
some  other  investigators  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
true  motor  area  lies  anterior  to  the  Rolandic  fissure, 
and  that  the  region  posterior  to  the  fissure  embodies 
the  corresponding  sensory  areas  for  the  reception  of 
tactile,  thermal,  kinaesthetic  sensations,  etc.  The 
opinion  of  physiologists  is  by  no  means  unanimous  on 
this  point,  and  it  is  held  by  many  that  the  region  on 
both  sides  of  the  Rolandic  fissure  is  sensory-motor, 
rather  than  motor  on  one  side  and  sensory  on  the 
other.  Investigation  is  difficult,  since  destruction  of 
the  sensory  regions  impairs  the  motor  functions. 
Fortunately  this  matter  does  not  vitally  concern  the 
discussions  of  the  present  monograph. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  centre  for  the  control 
of  the  oral  and  vocal  mechanism  is  at  the  foot  of  the 
precentral  and  postcentral  convolutions.  In  the 
orang-outang  this  centre  appears  to  be  confined  to 
the  precentral  convolution.  A  similar  localization  is 
made  by  most  physiologists  in  regard  to  human  beings. 


70 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 


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THE   BRAIN  71 

The  subcentre  for  the  oral  articulative  mechanism  is 
supposed  to  He  posterior  to  that  for  the  vocal  mechan- 
ism. The  motor  fibres  from  the  speech-centre  pass 
to  the  motor  centres  in  the  medulla  oblongata/  these 
centres  being  in  direct  connection  with  the  organs  of 
speech. 

The  region  of  the  uncinate  gyrus  and  hippocampal 
gyrus  is  regarded  as  the  site  of  the  olfactory  and 
gustatory  centres.  The  area  for  the  reception  of 
visual  impressions  is  located  in  the  occipital  lobe, 
chiefly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  cuneate  lobule. 
The  auditory  area  is  found  in  the  temporal  lobe,  espe- 
cially in  the  first  and  second  convolutions.  Each  of 
these  ''internal  sense-organs"  ^  stands  connected  with 
the  peripheric  sense-organ  of  the  opposite  side  of  the 
body.  Both  hemispheres  of  the  brain  are  active  dur- 
ing the  reception  of  simple  sensations  of  sight,  hearing, 
etc. 

The  memory-centres  ^  are  remarkable  in  that  they 
are  located  in  the  left  hemisphere  of  the  brain  in 
right-handed  persons,  and  in  the  right  hemisphere 
in  left-handed  persons.  The  reason  for  this  phenome- 
non and  for  dextrality  is  somewhat  of  a  biological 
mystery.     Bastian  has  found  that  the  specific  gravity 

^  The  bulb  of  the  spinal  cord,  which  lies  within  the  cranium. 

2  With  the  exceptions  stated  on  page  66. 

2  By  a  memory-centre  is  meant  a  centre  presiding  over  a  partic- 
ular type  of  mental  imagery.  The  term  does  not  imply  that  the 
centre  is  necessarily  devoid  of  sensory  function. 


72         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

of  the  cortical  matter  of  the  frontal,  parietal,  and 
occipital  regions  is  greater  in  the  left  hemisphere  than 
in  the  right.  This  phenomenon  is  probably  in  the 
nature  of  effect  rather  than  cause.  Ogle  has  sug- 
gested that  dextrahty  is  occasioned  by  certain 
pecuHarities  in  the  mode  of  development  and  distri- 
bution of  the  left  and  right  carotid  arteries.  A 
freer  blood  supply  to  the  left  hemisphere  is  invoked 
as  the  cause  of  this  hemisphere's  earlier  development.^ 
But  if  a  freer  blood  supply  to  the  left  hemisphere  were 
to  account  for  its  earHer  development,  it  would  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  earlier  development  of 
the  hemisphere  explains  its  exclusive  control  of 
memory. 

The  confinement  of  the  memory-centres  to  one 
hemisphere  probably  renders  possible  a  greater  rich- 
ness of  associations;  thus  the  phenomenon  might 
perhaps  be  explained  by  natural  selection.  In  any 
case,  the  fact  remains  that  the  memory-centres  are 
restricted  to  the  left  hemisphere  in  right-handed 
persons,  and  to  the  right  hemisphere  in  left-handed 
persons. 

The  site  of  the  memory-centres  can  be  designated 
with  considerable  accuracy.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  memory-centres  concerned  in  speech,  for  the 
slightest  injury  to  a  speech-centre  at  once  gives  rise 

^  In  many  left-handed  persons  a  freer  blood  supply  has  been  found 
to  obtain  for  the  right  hemisphere. 


THE  BRAIN 


73 


to  characteristic  symptoms.  The  auditory  verbal 
memory  is  subserved  by  the  posterior  two-thirds  of 
the  first  temporal  convolution  {A.  V.  in  Figure  5). 
The  anterior  third  of  this  convolution  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  seat  of  the  musical  memory.     The 


Fissure  of  Kolando 


Sylvian 

Fissure 


Fig.  5.  — Diagram  showing  the  approximate  site  of  the  principal  memory- 
centres  of  the  brain  (after  Bastian).  G.  M.,  graphic-motor  centre;  K.  V., 
kinaesthetic  verbal  centre  ;  G.A.  C,  general  auditory  centre  ;  A.  V.,  auditorj' 
verbal  centre ;  G.  V.  C,  general  visual  centre  ;  V.  V.,  visual  verbal  centre. 

second  temporal  convolution  is  less  important;  it  is 
subservient  (probably  with  some  assistance  from  the 
first  temporal  convolution)  to  the  memory  for  ordi- 
nary physical  sounds.  The  kincEsthetic  verbal  memory 
is  located  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  third  frontal 
convolution  {K.   V.  in  Figure  5).     The  kinaesthetic 


74         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

verbal  centre  is  known  as  '^Broca's  convolution."^ 
The  graphic-motor  centre,  the  centre  in  which  are 
stored  kinaesthetic  images  of  writing-movements,  is 
generally  assigned  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  second 
frontal  convolution  {G.  M.  in  Figure  5).  This 
localization  is  questioned  by  some  investigators.^ 
The  visual  verbal  memory  —  the  memory  for  printed 
and  written  words  —  is  located  in  the  angular  gyrus 
(F.  V.  in  Figure  5).  The  general  visual  centre  — 
for  the  memory  of  concrete  objects  —  occupies  the 
adjacent  regions  of  the  occipital  lobe.^ 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  visual  memory-centre  is 
anomalous  in  that  it  does  not  coincide  with  the  centre 
for  the  reception  of  visual  impressions,  —  the  primary 
visual  centre.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, concerning  the  location  of  these  two  centres. 
A  lesion  in  the  cuneate  lobule  results  in  hemianopsia,  — 

^  Broca  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  intimate  connection  of  this 
convolution  with  the  function  of  speech.  Broca's  convolution  was 
at  first  regarded  as  a  unitary  speech-centre. 

2  The  centre  for  writing-movements  is  undoubtedly  identical 
with  that  for  hand-movements.  We  know  that  kinaesthetic  images 
of  writing-movements  and  of  hand-movements  exist.  The  psycho- 
logical data  are  beyond  question.  The  exact  site  of  the  brain-centre 
is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance ;  hence  it  would  be  useless  to 
discuss  the  merits  of  this  allocation. 

^  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  position  of  each  brain-centre 
is  strictly  delimited.  Along  the  borders  there  must  necessarily  be 
considerable  interblending ;  hence  the  adjunctive  regions  belong 
equally  to  the  two  adjacent  centres.  A  lesion  in  these  regions  would 
affect  both  centres  slightly,  and  neither  of  them  radically. 


THE  BRAIN  75 

blindness  in  one  half  of  the  visual  field ;  but  if  the 
lesion  is  limited,  it  does  not  necessarily  affect  the 
visual  memory.  On  the  other  hand,  an  injury  to 
the  angular  gyrus  and  its  adjacent  region  obhterates 
the  visual  memory,  yet  leaves  physical  sight  unim- 
paired. The  patient  then  sees  quite  clearly,  but  is 
unable  to  recognize  objects  and  unable  to  think  in 
terms  of  sight.  These  facts  seem  to  indicate  that 
there  are  discrete  centres  for  the  reception  and  re- 
tention of  visual  impressions.  —  A  Hke  condition  may 
obtain  for  the  other  senses.  There  is  some  slight 
evidence  for  it  in  the  case  of  audition. 

The  kingesthetic  memory-centres  are  anterior  to 
the  fissure  of  Rolando.  This  fact  indicates  that  the 
somaesthetic  area  is  not  confined  to  the  region  posterior 
to  the  fissure  of  Rolando  or  that  the  sensory  and 
memory  centres  in  this  instance  do  not  coincide. 

Large  portions  of  the  cortex  seem  to  be  neither 
sensory  nor  motor.  They  are  regarded  as  associa- 
tion areas.  The  cerebellum  is  not  an  organ  of  con- 
scious intelligence.  It  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  maintenance  of  equilibrium,  and  its  function  seems 
to  be  in  general  a  coordinating  one. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  is  manifest  that 
we  have  not  only  memories  rather  than  memory, 
but  also  brains  —  or  brain-centres  —  rather  than  a 
brain.     We  have  an  auditory  brain,  a  visual  brain, 


76  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

a  kinaesthetic  brain,  and  so  on.  These  different 
brains,  or  brain-centres,  may  have  different  degrees 
of  activity,  resulting  in  different  degrees  of  vividness 
in  the  various  kinds  of  mental  imagery.  Different 
brain-centres  participate  in  different  acts  of  percep- 
tion and  conception.  In  some  mental  processes, 
all  the  brain-centres  may  be  active;  in  others,  per- 
haps only  one  or  two. 

In  the  reception  of  a  simple  sensation,  the  activity 
of  only  one  brain-centre  is  necessary.^  There  are 
no  associations;  the  mental  process  is  complete 
when  the  sensation  has  become  enregistered  in  the 
brain-cells.  With  perception  or  conception  the  mat- 
ter is  different;  the  stimulus  must  travel  from  one 
centre  to  another.  To  take  Charcot's  classical 
illustration  of  the  child  and  the  bell  (and  to  consider 
first  the  manner  in  which  the  various  elements  of 
the  percept  or  concept  are  established) :  ^  —  The  child 
takes  the  bell  into  his  hands  and  receives  a  set  of 
tactual  sensations,  the  sensory  stimulus  travelling 
along  the  afferent  nerves  to  the  somaesthetic  area  of 
the  brain  and  impressing  itself  in  the  cortex.  At  the 
same  time  the  child  sees  the  bell :  ether  waves  affect 
the  retina  of  the  eye,  and  the  afferent  current  travels 
along  the  optic  nerve  and  effects  chemical  changes 
in  the  cells  of  the  optic  lobe.     As  the  child  hears  the 

1  The  right  hemisphere  is  neglected  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 

2  See  Ballet,  "Le  langage  int6rieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  pp.  6  ff. 


THE   BRAIN  77 

bell,  air-vibrations  impinge  upon  the  drum  of  the  ear, 
and  the  stimulus  is  conducted  along  the  auditory 
nerve  to  the  auditory  brain-centre,  where  the  impres- 
sion is  enregistered.  Kinaesthetic  impressions  are 
similarly  enregistered  in  the  cortex.  Thus  there  are 
at  least  four  brain-centres  subserving  the  child's 
concept  of  the  bell  even  before  he  has  learned  to  talk. 
And  now  for  the  act  of  perception.  When  the  child 
sees  the  bell  on  some  subsequent  occasion,  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  object  arouses  memory-images  of 
its  sound  and  of  the  feehng  derived  from  handhng 
it.^  The  excitation  travels  from  the  primary  visual 
centre  to  the  secondary,  or  memory,  centre ;  whence 
it  radiates  to  the  auditory,  tactile,  and  motor  memory- 
centres.  If  one  of  these  centres  should  be  impaired, 
or  if  a  set  of  association-fibres  should  be  severed,  the 
act  of  perception  would  remain  incomplete.  With  the 
auditory  perception  the  process  is  similar.  Cells  in 
the  auditory  centre  are  first  excited ;  then  the  stimu- 
lus is  diffused  into  the  visual,  tactile,  and  kinaesthetic 
centres;  and  the  sound  of  the  bell  arouses  mental 
images  of  its  appearance,  feehng,  etc.  If  the  child 
were  to  feel  the  bell  in  the  first  place,  the  tactual 
sensation  would  (by  this  process  of  irradiation)  arouse 
mental  images  in  the  auditory  and  visual  centres, 
and  the  perception  would  be  complete. 

^  With  a  young  child  several  repetitions  of  the  experience  would 
be  necessary  to  establish  the  associations. 


78         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Obviously  there  are  numerous  different  doors 
through  which  the  percept  can  be  aroused.  The  bell 
may  be  visually  perceived  as  one  catches  sight  of  it ; 
it  may  be  tactually  perceived  as  one  grasps  it  in  the 
dark ;  and  it  may  be  auditorily  perceived  as  one  hears 
it  in  another  part  of  the  house.  In  any  one  of  these 
cases  the  bare  sensation  would  be  practically  meaning- 
less if  the  stimulus  were  not  to  travel  beyond  the 
'' receptive"  centre  and  arouse  the  associated  mental 
images. 

Taking,  for  further  illustration,  the  percept  of  an 
orange,  we  have  two  new  classes  of  sensations  that 
may  arouse  associated  images.  The  orange  may  be 
perceived  if  it  is  merely  smelled.  It  may  be  per- 
ceived equally  well  by  taste.  The  mental  process 
becomes  a  perception,  rather  than  a  sensation,  when 
the  stimulus  travels  from  the  gustatory  or  olfactory 
centre  to  the  memory-centres  for  visual  and  tactual 
impressions. 

It  is  evident  that  the  conceptual  and  perceptual 
processes  are  analogous.  The  nucleus  of  the  percept 
is  the  sensation  occasioned  by  the  stimulus  to  the 
peripheric  sense-organ :  the  activity  of  the  cortical 
cells  is  instigated  from  without.  The  nucleus  of  the 
concept  is  a  mental  image  —  produced  by  the  idio- 
activity  of  the  memory-cells.  An  illusion  —  a  false 
perception — is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  excitation  trav- 
erses  inappropriate    fibres   and  reaches  an  inappro- 


THE  BRAIN  79 

priate  cell.  Illusions  occur  most  frequently  during  ex- 
pectancy, —  that  is,  when  particular  memory-cells  are 
unusually  active  or  '^excitable."  It  seems  as  though 
an  efferent  current  comes  out  to  meet  an  afferent 
current  and  diverts  it  from  its  proper  course.  In 
hallucination  (as  distinguished  from  illusion)  the 
memory-cell  reaches  plenary  activity  without  external 
stimulation.  The  mental  image  is  then  mistaken  for 
a  sensation. 

Concepts  and  percepts  are  further  complicated  by 
the  introduction  of  language.  In  the  cases  cited 
above,  the  word  hell  or  orange  is  introduced  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  concept.  When  the  word  is 
heard  or  thought,  the  various  associated  images  arise 
in  the  foreground  of  consciousness  or  appear  in  the 
''fringe."  Conversely,  if  the  bell  or  orange  is  seen, 
or  is  thought  of  in  any  form  of  mental  imagery,  its 
name  is  aroused  by  association. 

WylKe  performed  an  interesting  experiment  to 
illustrate  the  mental  processes  in  perception,^  —  using 
a  number  of  children  as  subjects.  He  called  one  boy 
into  the  room  and  showed  him  an  apple  lying  upon 
the  table.  The  boy  was  asked  to  state  what  the  ob- 
ject was.  The  answer  came  at  once,  ''It  is  an  apple." 
The  second  child  was  permitted  to  smell  the  apple  after 
his  eyes  had  been  bandaged.  He  likewise  named  the 
object  immediately.     The  third  boy  had  a  piece  of 

^  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  pp.  227  ff. 


8o         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

an  apple  placed  in  his  mouth.  The  fourth  had  an 
apple  placed  in  his  hands.  Both  of  them  named  the 
object  correctly.  With  other  subjects  the  apple  was 
pared  close  to  the  ear,  so  that  the  sound  could  be 
plainly  heard.  Many  of  them  recognized  the  sound. 
The  final  experiment  was  an  appeal  to  the  kinaesthetic 
sense.  An  artificial  apple,  made  of  metal,  was  placed 
upon  the  table.  The  imitation  could  not  be  detected 
by  the  eye,  but  the  deception  was  immediately 
recognized  when  the  apple  was  taken  into  the  hands. 

In  these  different  acts  of  perception  the  word- 
image  apple  may  have  been  directly  aroused  by  the 
sensation,  or  it  may  have  been  indirectly  invoked 
through  one  of  the  awakened  mental  images.  In  any 
case  the  word  is  aroused  by  the  overflow  of  the  mental 
"current"  into  the  adjoining  brain-centres.  The 
process  is  dependent  upon  the  integrity  of  the  brain- 
cells  and  fibres  concerned.  It  is  found  in  some 
pathological  cases,  where  certain  brain-fibres  have  been 
severed,  that  a  person  may  recognize  an  object  placed 
in  one  hand  though  he  cannot  recognize  it  when  it  is 
placed  in  the  other.  The  break  in  the  fibres  furnishes 
a  check  to  the  mental  current,  so  that  it  cannot  pass 
into  the  adjoining  brain-centres  and  awaken  the 
associated  mental  images.^ 

In  the  case  of  the  congenitally  blind  or  congenitally 
deaf,  whole  brain-centres  are  ruled  out  of  the  per- 

1  In  such  cases  the  interruption  is  probably  in  the  transverse  fibres. 


THE   BRAIN  8l 

ceptual  and  conceptual  processes.  The  mental  current 
can  never  enter  these  areas  to  awaken  visual  or  au- 
ditory ideas.  If  the  person  is  both  blind  and  deaf, 
the  mental  current  is  restricted  almost  exclusively  to 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  brain.  If  the  visual  or 
auditory  areas  become  damaged  later  in  life,  when  the 
person  is  dependent  upon  his  images  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing, mental  ef&ciency  is  greatly  impaired. 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  the  word-image  has 
been  treated  as  though  it  were  a  unitary  image  that 
could  be  aroused  through  the  activity  of  a  single 
brain-centre.  Such  may  be  the  case  in  rare  instances, 
—  in  the  typical  audile,  for  instance.  But,  as  we 
have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  word-image 
is  usually  complex,  and  its  appearance  in  conscious- 
ness often  requires  the  activity  of  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent centres. 

We  may  consider  first  the  simple  memory-image  of 
the  spoken  word  uncomplicated  by  visual  images  of 
written  or  printed  words  or  by  kinaesthetic  images 
of  writing-movements.  In  this  case  the  word-image  is 
subserved  by  the  kinaesthetic  verbal  centre  and  the 
auditory  verbal  centre  {K.  V.  and  A.  F.  in  Figure  5). 
With  the  articulo-moteur  the  activity  may  be  limited 
in  silent  thought  almost  exclusively  to  the  centre 
K.  V.  This  person  feels  his  words  when  thinking 
them.     When  the  activity  begins  in  ^.  F.  (as  he  is 


82         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

listening  to  the  speech  of  another  person)  there  is  an 
overflow  into  K.  V.,  and  he  mentally  articulates  the 
words  as  he  hears  them.  With  some  motor-minded 
persons  the  activity  of  K.  V.  appears  to  be  indis- 
pensable for  silent  thought  and  the  interpretation  of 
spoken  words.  A  lesion  in  the  kinaesthetic  verbal 
centre  then  impairs  silent  thought  and  renders  the  in- 
terpretation of  spoken  language  extremely  difficult. 

With  the  average  person  the  activity  of  both  K.  V. 
and  A.  F.  is  essential  for  silent  thought.  The  more 
prominent  articulative  movements  are  mentally  felt, 
and  the  whole  word  —  or  simply  the  vowel  —  is  at 
the  same  time  mentally  heard.  The  activity  com- 
mences in  K.  V.  and  flows  into  A .  V.  Frequently  the 
mental  process  remains  incomplete.  One  remembers 
the  letter  that  begins  a  particular  word  without  being 
able  to  recall  the  rest  of  it.  (There  are  no  visual 
images  present:  the  initial  articulative  movement 
is  simply  felt.)  It  seems  that  the  neural  current  is 
checked  in  its  passage  from  K.  V.  to  A.  V.,  or  that  the 
cells  in  ^.  V.  are  abnormally  torpid.^ 

When  the  auditory  tendency  predominates,  the 
activity  may  perhaps  begin  in  ^.  V.  and  overflow 
to  some  extent  into  K.  V.  This  is  an  inverted  order 
of  association,  and  probably  does  not  usually  occur. 
When  the  image  is  initiated  in  the  centre  A.   F.,  it 

^  The  idea  of  a  neural  current  is  more  or  less  a  working  hypothesis. 
It  is  not  known  exactly  what  takes  place  in  the  brain  during  thought. 


THE   BRAIN  83 

has,  without  the  addition  of  the  motor  image,  the 
'^fulness"  and  ''roundness"  of  a  mental  word. 
When  the  image  is  initiated  in  K.  V.,  it  is  often  at- 
tenuated till  A.  V.  has  supplied  the  mental  sound. 
Conjoint  activity  of  the  two  centres  is  necessary  in 
the  latter  case,  but  not  in  the  former.  When  the 
activity  begins  in  ^ .  F. ,  the  person  is  probably  a  pure 
audile. 

With  the  educated  person  the  kinsesthetic  and 
auditory  verbal  centres  are  supplemented  by  two 
centres  connected  with  the  faculty  of  reading  and 
writing.  These  are  the  visual  verbal  centre,  pre- 
siding over  images  of  printed  and  written  words,  and 
the  graphic-motor  centre,  presiding  over  the  kinass- 
thetic  memories  of  writing-movements  (represented 
respectively  as  V.  V.  and  G.  M.  in  Figure  5).  The 
centre  F.  V.,  in  the  angular  g3Tus,  plays  a  prominent 
part  in  verbal  representation  with  eye-minded  people. 
The  activity  begins  in  F.  F  and  flows  into  K.  V.  and 
A .  F.  This  happens  when  the  person  reads  his  words 
from  an  imaginary  printed  strip,  or  sees  them  before 
him  in  any  form  of  visual  imagery.  The  activity 
may  in  rare  instances  be  confined  to  F.  F. ;  in  this 
case  the  visual  image  of  the  word  does  not  arouse  the 
image  of  the  spoken  word.  This  happens  with  the 
deaf-mute  that  has  learned  to  read  and  write,  but  not 
to  speak.  The  associations  of  meaning  are  attached 
directly  to  the  visual  image  as  a  nucleus.     With  all 


84  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

persons  the  activity  commences  in  V.  V.  during  the 
act  of  reading ;  it  then  passes  into  K.  V.  and  A.  F.  as 
the  printed  word  arouses  the  memory  of  its  spoken 
correlate. 

With  the  visile,  the  auditory  impression  of  a  word 
frequently  awakens  the  associated  visual  verbal 
image.  In  this  case  the  activity  flows  from  ^.  V.  into 
V.  V. :  the  stimulus  passes  from  cells  in  the  first  tem- 
poral convolution  and  along  the  associational  fibres  into 
the  angular  gyrus,  where  the  related  cells  are  excited. 
If  the  words  are  to  be  written  from  dictation,  the 
stimulus  passes  on  to  the  graphic-motor  centre,  and 
kinaesthetic  images  of  the  necessary  hand-movements 
are  provoked. 

The  graphic-motor  centre,  unHke  the  three  other 
verbal  centres,  plays  no  prominent  part  in  verbal 
thought.  The  reason  for  this  is  undoubtedly  found  in 
the  complexity  of  the  imagery  that  it  subserves.  The 
graphic-motor  image  would,  by  its  duration,  materi- 
ally impede  the  thought-processes.  The  other  verbal 
images  can  arise  instantaneously,  and  for  this  reason 
are  better  adapted  to  verbal  thought.  The  graphic- 
motor  image  does,  however,  frequently  arise  in  the 
motile  during  moments  of  preoccupation.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  subject  that  spends  much  of  his 
time  in  writing.  As  he  hears  a  word  to  which  he  is 
paying  no  particular  attention,  or  thinks  a  word  in 
a  casual  way,  he  may  find  himself  mentally  penning 


THE  BRAIN  85 

the  letters  that  compose  it.  This  phenomenon  is 
due  to  the  passage  of  the  stimulus  into  the  centre 
G.  M.  The  present  writer,  in  whom  motor  images 
are  signally  strong,  frequently  experiences  a  curious 
obtrusion  of  the  kinaesthetic  images.  As  a  word  rises 
in  the  mind  during  a  moment  of  abstraction,  he  fre- 
quently finds  himself  mentally  tapping  the  word  out 
on  a  typewriter.  There  is  seldom  present  a  visual 
image  of  the  keyboard.  When  it  appears,  it  is  rudi- 
mentary to  the  last  degree.  There  is  no  mental 
imagery  of  sound.  The  overflow  is  confined  to  the 
hand-movement  centre.  If  it  passes  to  the  visual 
centre,  the  current  is  either  too  weak  or  the  cells  are 
too  torpid  to  permit  the  arousal  of  a  clear  visual  image. 
If  the  current  passes  to  the  auditory  centre,  it  is  again 
too  weak,  or  it  meets  with  insuperable  inertia.^ 

1  In  the  case  of  the  writer,  the  visual  images  are  usually  vestigial 
or  schematic.    Auditory  images  are  practically  non-existent. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND 
VOLUNTARY  SPEECH 

What  is  the  cause  of  a  voluntary  muscular  move- 
ment? Exactly  what  is  it  in  the  mind  that  directs 
such  a  movement  as  lifting  the  arm,  for  instance? 
Why  is  the  act  invariably  the  appropriate  one,  and 
why  does  one  not  protrude  the  tongue  or  suddenly 
sit  down  instead  of  executing  the  arm-movement  in- 
tended ?  The  opinion  that  finds  the  widest  acceptance 
among  psychologists  is  that  the  immediate  provo- 
cative of  a  voluntary  movement  is  a  mental  image  of 
the  effect  that  the  movement  will  produce.  This 
effect  may  be  the  feeling  of  the  movem.ent  itself,  or 
the  impression  of  certain  results  that  the  movement 
produces  indirectly. 

The  memory  of  the  direct  effect  James  calls  the 
resident  image}  It  is  the  tactile  memory  of  the 
different  cutaneous  sensations,  and  the  kinaesthetic 
memory  of  tendinous  strain,  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cles, movement  of  the  joints,  etc.  The  indirect  effect 
of  the  movement  may  be  the  sound  of  a  bell,  a  note 

1  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  488  £f. 
86 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH     87 

from  a  violin ;  it  may  be  a  tactile  sensation  as  one 
plunges  the  hands  into  water,  an  olfactory  sensation 
as  one  lifts  a  rose  to  the  nostrils,  or  a  gustatory  sensa- 
tion as  one  raises  a  cup  of  coffee  to  the  lips.  This 
resultant  sensation  James  calls  the  ''remote"  effect. 
The  memory  of  it  is  the  remote  image.  Apparently, 
either  the  resident  or  the  remote  image  may  excite 
a  muscular  movement.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  when  the  remote  image  appears  to  be  the  sole 
instigator  of  the  movement,  the  resident  image  is 
really  sandwiched  in  between  the  remote  image 
and  the  movement  executed.  It  would  be  quickly 
swamped  by  the  kinaesthetic  sensations. 

Kinaesthetic  images  have  a  remarkable  propensity 
for  self-expression.  With  many  persons  they  give 
rise  to  incipient  movements.  Thus  we  see  the  per- 
son that  moves  the  lips  while  reading  or  thinking 
intently,  and  the  person  that  thinks  aloud.  These 
movements  might  be  ascribed  to  the  remote  as  well  as 
to  the  resident  image,  but  it  is  easy  to  show  that  the 
resident  image  is  always  straining  at  the  leash  and 
endeavoring  to  express  itself  in  movement.  Let  the 
reader  place  an  arm  upon  the  table,  and  rigidly  con- 
tract its  muscles.  Then  let  him  endeavor  to  obtain 
in  memory  a  clear  feeling  of  the  arm's  relaxation. 
Any  degree  of  success  is  immediately  accompanied 
by  a  diminution  in  the  tension  of  the  muscles.  Let 
the  reader  then  place  both  arms  upon  the  table,  and 


88         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

firmly  contract  the  muscles  of  the  right  arm  while 
relaxing  the  muscles  of  the  left.  Let  him  then  attend 
to  the  feehngs  in  the  rigid  arm  and  the  relaxed  arm 
alternately.  As  he  attends  to  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  in  the  right  arm,  the  muscles  of  the  left  tend 
to  contract  Hkewise.  As  he  transfers  his  attention 
to  the  left  arm  in  order  to  effect  its  relaxation,  the 
tension  of  the  right  arm  diminishes.  In  this  case  the 
sensory  impressions  play  the  part  that  is  usually 
taken  by  kinsesthetic  images. 

Muscle-reading  (the  "wilHng  game")  is  based  upon 
this  propension  of  the  kinaesthetic  image  for  express- 
ing itself  in  movement.  The  performance  is  usually 
represented  as  mind-reading.  The  performer  under- 
takes to  find,  while  blindfolded,  a  certain  object  that 
has  been  hidden  in  the  room.  He  takes  the  hand  of 
the  "medium"  (who  of  course  knows  where  the  object 
is  hidden),  and  proceeds  to  ''receive"  the  thought, 
the  rest  of  the  company  meanwhile  concentrating 
intently  in  order  to  render  ''telepathic"  assistance. 
The  medium  is  exhorted  to  "think  hard,"  and  so  on. 
In  a  few  minutes  the  hidden  object  is  found.  What 
happens  is  that  the  performer  reads  the  little  pulls 
and  tugs  of  the  "medium's"  hand,  which  the  latter 
is  quite  unconscious  of  making.  As  the  "medium" 
endeavors  to  concentrate  his  thought,  his  kinaesthetic 
images  become  more  intense  or  come  more  to  the 
foreground  of  consciousness,  and  without  his  knowl- 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH     89 

edge  they  find  expression  in  incipient  movements. 
Frequently  these  movements  are  so  conspicuous  that 
the  veriest  novice  could  not  fail  to  find  the  hidden  ob- 
ject. He  is,  in  fact,  led  to  the  hiding-place.  Usually, 
of  course,  the  movements  are  inchoate ;  but  the  ex- 
perienced muscle-reader  finds  them  sufficiently  con- 
spicuous for  his  purpose. 

The  resident  kinaesthetic  images  are  undoubtedly 
the  sole  mental  cues  for  the  grosser  muscular  move- 
ments. For  the  more  delicate  muscular  movements 
—  those  involved  in  whistling,  singing,  speaking, 
etc.  —  the  remote  images  cooperate.  In  the  deaf 
or  bhnd,  or  in  those  that  are  both  deaf  and  blind, 
many  of  the  remote  images  are  lacking.  The  con- 
genitally  deaf  learn  to  speak  by  feeling  in  the  same 
way  that  the  congenitally  blind  learn  to  write  by 
feeling.  The  mental  cues  are  in  each  case  resident 
rather  than  remote.^ 

*The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  how  the  first  movements 
come  to  be  performed  in  order  that  the  resident  images  may  be 
established.  The  answer  is  found  in  the  biological  principle  (ex- 
pressed as  the  dynamogenic  law)  that  living  matter  tends  to  convert 
a  sensory  stimulus  into  a  motor  response.  The  child's  earliest 
movements  are  purely  involuntary  :  he  is  nothing  more  than  a  pas- 
sive spectator  of  what  is  going  on.  The  earliest  random-spontaneous 
movements  are  generally  bilateral ;  they  are  the  kicking  of  the  legs, 
and  the  waving  of  the  arms.  Later  comes  vocal  play,  —  cooing, 
babbling,  etc.  (usually  prompted  by-  feelings  of  bodily  comfort). 
The  resultant  images  are  enregistered  in  the  mind,  and  the  child  is 
later  able   to  perform,  voluntarily,  movements   that  were  at  first 


90         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

The  question  now  suggests  itself  as  to  whether  or 
not  one  has  any  direct  control  of  the  emission  of  the 
motor  current.  The  most  natural  conception  of  the 
matter  is  that  the  outgoing  current  is  actually  felt, 
and  that  its  discharge  is  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  will.  It  will  be  pretty  generally  conceded  that 
the  motor  current  must  be  sentient  if  its  emission 
is  to  be  voluntarily  directed.  But  is  the  motor 
current  sentient?  The  current  exists  beyond  a 
doubt,  but  that  its  discharge  is  actually  felt  is 
denied  by  many  competent  psychologists.  What 
is  usually  mistaken  for  the  feeling  of  innervation 
is  nothing  more  than  the  kinaesthetic  sensations  — 
the  feehngs  from  the  muscles,  tendons,  articular 
surfaces,  etc. 

That  these  feelings  are  afferent  rather  than  efferent, 

spontaneous.  "It  follows  from  this  that  voluntary  movements 
must  be  secondary,  not  primary  functions  of  our  organism,"  (James, 
"Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  487.)  These  earlier  movements  of  the 
child  are,  of  course,  elementary.  When  he  has  gained  control  of  his 
legs,  arms,  and  fingers  in  the  manner  described,  his  further  move- 
ments are  in  the  nature  of  combinations  of  these  elementary  move- 
ments. The  child's  operations  are  henceforth  voluntary,  but  for 
many  years  he  progresses  very  largely  by  trial  and  error. 

All  of  the  bodily  movements  are  not  necessarily  random-spon- 
taneous in  their  inception.  Many  of  the  earliest  movements  are 
externally  impressed  upon  the  limbs. 

It  is  obvious  that  but  for  memory  the  child  would  remain  an 
organism  responding  to  external  stimuli.  With  memory,  he  is 
able  to  respond  to  internal  stimuli;  i.e.  he  is  able  to  effect  "volun- 
tary" movements. 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH    91 

is  evident  from  the  fact  that  one  has  an  exact  appre- 
ciation of  any  movement  that  is  externally  impressed 
upon  the  limbs.  There  can  be  no  feeHng  of  innerva- 
tion in  this  case ;  yet  the  sensations  do  not  differ  in 
quaHty  from  those  accompanying  a  voluntary  move- 
ment. Furthermore,  accurate  discriminations  of 
weight  can  be  made  when  the  muscles  of  the  arm  are 
made  to  contract  artificially  by  means  of  an  electrical 
stimulus  (Bastian).  There  is  no  motor  current  pres- 
ent, yet  the  amount  of  the  muscular  contraction 
can  be  accurately  determined.  It  is  clear  that  the 
feeHng  of  effort  and  the  supposed  innervation-feeHng 
must  in  this  case  be  purely  afferent. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  feehngs  inhere  in  the 
muscles  actually  participating  in  the  movement. 
Hence,  if  the  feeling  emanates  from  the  outgoing 
current,  it  must  be  felt  along  the  path  of  its  discharge. 
This  being  the  case,  it  should  be  possible  to  trace  the 
course  of  the  current  through  every  nerve  that  it 
traverses.  The  experiment  of  contracting  the  muscles 
of  the  arm  or  leg  will  show  that  all  consciousness  of  the 
movement  comes  exclusively  from  the  limb  affected. 
It  is  impossible  to  trace  the  motor  channels  through 
the  spinal  cord,  for  instance.  Hence  one  must  con- 
clude that  only  the  ingoing  current  is  felt. 

The  argument  might  be  advanced  that,  even  if 
the  motor  current  is  not  felt  in  the  path  of  its  dis- 
charge, its  emission  is  distinctly  felt  and  controlled 


92         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

at  its  source.  Introspection  refutes  the  argument. 
There  are  many  fugitive  sensations  that  might  be 
mistaken  by  the  untrained  psychologist  for  this 
feehng  of  the  effort  of  the  will.  Such,  for  instance, 
are  sensations  from  the  contraction  of  the  brow,  the 
tension  of  the  scalp  muscles,  the  occlusion  of  the 
glottis,  etc.  But  when  these  sensations  are  eliminated, 
nothing  further  remains.  The  only  feehngs  dis- 
coverable are  those  in  the  muscles,  tendons,  etc. 
It  is  impossible  even  to  tell  in  which  hemisphere  of 
the  brain  the  motor  cells  reside. 

There  is  another  cogent  argument  against  these 
innervation-feelings.  There  is  no  conscious  inner- 
vation in  reflex,  automatic,  and  secondary-automatic 
acts.  The  acts  simply  perform  themselves  in  re- 
sponse to  the  appropriate  stimulus.  In  most  cases 
the  innervation  is  altogether  beyond  the  control  "of 
the  will.  Yet  the  secondary-automatic  acts  were 
at  first  voluntarily  performed.  If  sentient  inner- 
vations exist,  we  must  suppose  them  to  have  been 
present  when  the  movement  was  still  voluntary. 
But  in  some  mysterious  way  they  have  reHnquished 
their  function,  and  insentient  innervations  have  re- 
placed them.  The  existence  of  such  a  condition  of 
affairs  seems  improbable. 

The  import  of  the  foregoing  arguments  is  that  the 
motor  current  is  not  sentient,  —  that  it  is  not  felt 
in  the  path  of  its  discharge  and  that  it  is  not  felt  at 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH    93 

its  source.  It  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  the  inner- 
vation-current  can  be  insentient,  and  yet  be  under 
the  control  of  the  will.  Consciousness  cannot  con- 
trol that  of  which  it  is  unable  to  take  cognizance. 
And  if  we  suppose  that  the  will  is  in  any  way  able 
to  emit  the  motor  current,  we  must  concede  that  the 
will  is  a  physical  force ;  whence  we  find  ourselves 
in  conflict  with  the  law  of  Conservation  of  Energy. 
The  attempt  to  compromise  by  supposing  that  the 
will  does  not  discharge  the  current,  but  merely  con- 
trols it,  leads  to  the  same  dilemma :  a  force  can  be 
controlled  only  by  a  force. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  there  can  be  no  direct 
control  of  the  efferent  current.  Muscular  movements 
are  controlled  indirectly^  —  by  attention  to  the  results 
they  produce.  The  non-psychologist  may  find  it 
difficult  to  subscribe  to  this  thesis,  but  his  acceptance 
or  rejection  of  it  need  not  affect  his  attitude  toward 
later  discussions.  If  he  holds  that  the  discharge  is 
voluntary,  he  must  admit  that  its  purpose  is  foreseen. 
To  admit  that  the  purpose  is  foreseen  is  to  admit  that 
the  nature  of  the  act  is  determined  by  antecedent 
mental  images.  Thus  the  image  remains  paramount, 
whatever  views  be  held  on  innervation.  The  hegem- 
ony of  the  mental  image  may,  then,  be  regarded  as 
established. 

The  subject  of  indirect  control  —  through  the 
mental   image  —  need   not   be   discussed   at   length. 


94         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Whatever  views  be  held  concerning  the  fiat  —  the 
decision  to  act  —  the  admission  must  still  be  made 
that  the  mental  imagery  alone  determines  the  nature  of 
the  performance.  With  this  point  granted,  we  can 
return  to  the  subject  of  speech. 

Our  task  is  to  ascertain  the  relative  importance 
of  the  kinaesthetic  and  auditory  imagery  in  the  initia- 
tion of  oral  speech.  It  can  be  shown  at  the  outset 
that  the  kinaesthetic  centre  can  in  some  cases  assume 
the  sole  directive  function  in  oral  speech,  just  as  it 
can  assume  the  sole  direction  of  verbal  thought. 
In  the  congenitally  deaf  that  have  acquired  the  mas- 
tery of  language,  speech  must  be  evoked  almost 
exclusively  by  kincesthetic  cues.  Some  assistance 
may  be  derived  from  visual  images,  but  auditory 
images  are  out  of  the  question.  In  the  case  of  the 
deaf-bhnd  Helen  Keller,  both  visual  and  auditory 
images  are  excluded,  and  speech  is  initiated  ex- 
clusively by  images  of  feeling.  Among  persons  not 
deprived  of  any  of  the  senses,  we  find  a  few  that 
have  practically  no  auditory  memory.  It  is  evident 
that  they  must  resort  to  motor  cues  for  the  instiga- 
tion of  oral  speech.  Occasionally  one  of  these  '*ar- 
ticulo-moteurs "  suffers  an  injury  to  the  auditory 
verbal  centre,  and  whatever  auditory  images  existed 
are  destroyed  with  the  brain-cells.  Yet  verbal 
thought  and  speech  remain  unimpaired.     The  patient 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH     95 

is  merely  unable  to  interpret  words  that  he  hears.  It 
is  evident,  then,  that  oral  speech  can  in  some  cases 
be  actuated  exclusively  by  kinaesthetic  images,  the 
auditory  images  being  dispensable. 

Taking  the  opposite  aspect  of  the  question :  Can 
the  auditory  images  of  themselves  incite  speech? 
Apparently  they  can  not,  though  there  are  several 
facts  that  indicate  the  contrary  if  they  are  only 
superficially  examined.  It  will  be  well  to  consider 
these  facts  carefully. 

Children  that  are  born  deaf  do  not  naturally  learn 
to  speak. ^  The  usual  inference  is  that  the  non-de- 
velopment of  speech  is  due  to  the  absence  of  auditory 
imagery.  But  speech  can  develop  without  auditory 
imagery,  and  often  when  hearing  is  present  the  sense 
is  little  more  than  a  guide  during  actual  enuncia- 
tion. Hearing  is  important  for  the  child  while  he 
is  acquiring  speech,  even  though  he  be  an  articulo- 
moteur;  but  in  spite  of  this  fact  he  may  remember 
words  in  terms  of  feeling  and  not  in  terms  of  hearing. 
Thus  the  dumbness  of  a  deaf  child  cannot  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  lack  of  auditory  images  any  more  than 
to  the  lack  of  kinaesthetic  images.  His  dumbness  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  he  has  not  had  hearing  as  a  guide. 

A  child  that  loses  his  hearing  at  the  age  of  five  or 

^  "Puppies,  or  even  dogs,  are  rendered  dumb  by  the  destruction 
of  the  internal  ear."  Waller,  "Human  Physiology,"  3d  ed.,  p.  550 
(cites  Danilewski). 


96  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

six  gradually  becomes  dumb  unless  he  is  drilled  in 
articulation.  The  dumbness  is  frequently  attributed 
to  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  auditory  images. 
The  auditory  images  admittedly  fade  from  conscious- 
ness, but  their  disappearance  is  not  necessarily  the 
cause  of  the  muteness.  Deafness  is  a  mental  cata- 
clysm for  the  child;  it  entails  a  sweeping  change  in 
his  psychic  life.  It  would  indeed  be  remarkable  if 
the  child  should  evince  a  disposition  to  talk  when 
his  own  words  have  ceased  to  be  audible  to  him.  He 
may  attempt  to  speak,  but  his  world  of  hearing  has 
been  blotted  out,  and  he  does  not  even  know  whether 
he  is  uttering  sound  or  not.  He  probably  beheves 
that  his  speech  is  affected  as  well  as  his  hearing  —  if, 
indeed,  he  is  able  to  analyze  the  situation  at  all.  The 
fact  that  the  child  does  retain  possession  of  his  speech 
if  he  is  carefully  drilled  in  articulation  is  conclusive 
evidence  that  acoustic  images  are  dispensable  for  oral 
speech,  for  it  is  generally  admitted  that  privation  of 
hearing  at  an  early  age  entails  obliteration  of  the 
auditory  imagery. 

There  is  another  argument  that  is  sometimes  ad- 
duced in  favor  of  a  purely  auditory  incitation  of  oral 
speech.  Occasionally  a  child  gives  utterance  to 
several  consecutive  words  in  his  initial  attempt  at 
speech.  In  such  cases  the  development  of  speech  is 
usually  delayed,  and  the  child  makes  no  use  of  lan- 
guage till  suddenly  moved  by  some  intense  emotional 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH     97 

excitement.^  The  argument  is  that,  since  the  child 
has  not  previously  spoken  the  words,  he  can  have  no 
kinaesthetic  memory  of  them.  From  this  it  is  in- 
ferred that  the  words  are  prompted  solely  by  auditory 
cues.  However,  in  such  cases  the  child  usually  in- 
dulges freely  in  ''baby-chatter"  before  he  utters  his 
initial  sentence,  and  in  this  way  he  establishes  an 
association  between  the  feeling  and  the  sound  of  the 
syllables  he  utters.  Many  of  the  elementary  sounds 
are  thus  represented  in  both  kinaesthetic  and  auditory 
memory.  Cliildren  usually  learn  language  in  this 
piecemeal  fashion,  and  they  have  undoubtedly  both 
kinaesthetic  and  auditory  images  of  the  elements  of 
speech  they  have  mastered.  Elements  that  are  not 
clearly  represented  in  motor  memory  are  mispro- 
nounced; ultimately  they  are  mastered  by  process 
of  trial  and  error.  New  words  are  learned  by  re- 
combining  the  different  elements,  and  since  these 
are  represented  in  both  kinaesthetic  and  auditory 
memory,  it  is  not  necessary  that  a  word  should  be 
prompted  at  its  first  appearance  by  purely  auditory 
imagery.  The  articulo-moteur  may  turn  to  the 
dictionary  and  read  off  hundreds  of  words  that  he 
has  never  before  pronounced,  yet  the  words  are 
not   initiated    by    auditory    cues.     He    cannot   even 

^  In  a  case  cited  by  Bastian  the  child  did  not  speak  till  he  was 
five  years  of  age.  Then,  upon  breaking  a  toy,  he  suddenly  ex- 
claimed, "What  a  pity  !  " 


98  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

think  the  words  in  auditory  imagery ;  he  finds  that  he 
must  mentally  articulate  them.  This  fact  con- 
clusively demonstrates  that,  when  once  the  elements 
of  speech  are  mastered,  any  new  combination  of  them 
may  be  represented  in  kinaesthetic  imagery  prior  to 
its  first  enunciation. 

Thus,  the  arguments  in  favor  of  a  purely  auditory 
incitation  are  easily  refuted.  Those  opposed  to  it 
are  conclusive. 

If  it  were  always  possible  for  one  to  pronounce 
words  of  which  he  has  a  clear  auditory  image ;  then 
the  child  should  blossom  into  a  fluent  speaker  as  soon 
as  the  neural  speech-mechanism  becomes  functionally 
mature.^  As  soon  as  he  speaks  his  first  few  words, 
he  should  be  able  to  pronounce  any  word  that  he  is 
able  to  think  in  auditory  imagery.  He  should  have 
no  difficulty  in  repeating  any  word  that  is  spoken 
to  him,  for  the  primary  memory  would  be  distinct, 
even  if  no  secondary  memory  were  to  endure.  The 
child  should  have  no  difficulty  with  his  G's,  X's,  Z's, 
and  r/j's.  He  should  be  able  to  trill  his  R's,  and 
pronounce  German  gutturals  and  French  nasals  the 
moment  he  hears  them.     We  know,  of  course,  that 

^  "  For  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  great  majority  of  children 
can  remember  the  names  given  to  many  external  objects  when  they 
are  four  or  five  months  old ;  their  memory  in  this  respect  continually 
increasing  through  succeeding  months,  even  whilst  they  still  make  no 
very  distinct  efiforts  at  articulating  words  for  themselves."  Bastian, 
"The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind,"  p.  604. 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH     99 

this  is  not  the  case,  but  that  the  child  usually  takes 
years  to  master  the  elements  of  even  his  own  language. 
He  proceeds  by  trial  and  error,  and  has  no  thorough 
command  of  language  till  the  kinaesthetic  images  of 
speech  are  established. 

Exactly  the  same  argument  applies  in  the  case  of 
the  adult  to  the  mastering  of  foreign  languages.  If 
speech-initiation  could  be  accompUshed  by  pure 
auditory  imagery,  one  should  be  able,  as  soon  as  the 
auditory  memory  is  established,  to  utter  any  sound 
producible  by  the  speech-organs.  The  primary 
memory  would  be  sufficient ;  and  one  should  be  able 
to  repeat  upon  the  demand  the  most  difficult  combina- 
tions in  Chinese,  German,  Swedish,  or  any  other 
language.  The  Enghshman  should  be  able  to  repeat 
the  uvular  R  the  first  time  he  hears  it ;  the  German 
should  have  no  difficulty  whatever  with  the  English 
Th.  However,  this  is  not  the  case.  Few  adults 
can  master  even  one  foreign  language  and  speak  it 
with  a  pure  accent.     As  Kussmaul  says :  ^ 

"No  living  person  is  able  to  pronounce  the  speech-sounds  of 
all  the  different  races  of  the  world.  A  Lepsius  may  express 
them  in  writing,  a  Briicke  may  discover  the  processes  involved 
in  their  articulation ;  but  even  such  scholars  cannot  articulate 
them  all.  In  the  speech  of  every  race  only  certain  sounds 
are  developed,  while  other  sounds  are  entirely  neglected.  Thus 
there  occurs  a  national  and  dialectical  mogilalia." 

^  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  257. 


lOO        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Yet  such  difficulty  with  foreign  languages  would 
never  arise  if  auditory  imagery  were  in  itself  sufficient 
to  incite  oral  speech.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  there 
can  be  no  pure  auditory  incitation  of  speech,  but  that 
kinaesthetic  images  are  also  requisite.  The  audile, 
then,  becomes  an  audito-moteur  when  oral  expression 
is  concerned. 

The  auditory  image,  nevertheless,  plays  a  con- 
spicuous role  in  the  evocation  of  oral  language.  Any 
impairment  of  the  auditory  brain-centre  usually 
induces  a  marked  disturbance  in  speech.  But  the 
auditory  image  never  assumes  exclusive  control  of 
oral  expression.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a 
person  invariably  becomes  mute  if  the  motor  memory- 
centre  is  destroyed. 

The  auditory  image  is  important  in  musical  ex- 
pression. There  is  with  some  persons  an  absolute 
musical  memory,  —  a  musical  memory  that  permits 
them  to  produce  a  note  of  any  desired  pitch.  It  is 
manifest  that  in  such  cases  the  auditory  image  must 
be  almost  exclusively  responsible  for  the  note  pro- 
duced, for  the  note  must  be  remembered  as  sound, 
and  not  as  feehng.  Again,  in  singing  and  whistling, 
the  auditory  image  determines  almost  exclusively  the 
nature  of  the  production.  But  even  in  singing,  the 
kinaesthetic  image  plays  an  important  role.  The 
powerful  articulations  of  a  concert  singer  —  or  of  one 
that  sings  so  that  his  audience  can  understand  him 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH    loi 

—  are  produced  more  by  images  of  muscular  move- 
ment than  by  images  of  sound. 

Auditory  imagery  is  an  important  factor  —  though, 
again,  never  the  sole  factor — in  mimetic  performances. 
Frequently  the  ear-minded  person  can  give  faithful 
imitations  of  a  brogue  or  a  dialect,  or  he  may  be  able 
to  imitate  the  timbre  of  another  person's  voice.  He 
is  able  to  succeed  because  he  mentally  hears  the  sounds 
he  is  about  to  utter.  The  articulo-moteur  flounders 
helplessly  with  the  same  task.  He  must  experiment 
with  various  conformations  of  the  speech-organs ;  and 
if  he  finds  one  that  gives  the  desired  result,  he  must 
remember  it  by  feeling.  Naturally  enough,  he  meets 
with  little  success  as  a  mimic.  But  even  the  audiio- 
moteur  depends  upon  his  kinaesthetic  imagery  to  a 
great  extent.  He  may  not  succeed  in  imitating  a  voice 
at  the  first  attempt,  but  he  succeeds  after  a  little 
practice.  The  practice,  however,  does  not  enhance 
the  vividness  of  the  acoustic  imagery;  it  merely 
establishes  an  association  between  the  auditory  images 
and  the  images  of  related  articulative  movements. 
Mastering  the  pronunciation  of  foreign  languages  is 
largely  a  matter  of  imitation;  thus  the  audito- 
moteur  meets  with  greater  success  than  the  articulo- 
moteur  in  this  particular  field. ^ 

^  This  fact  does  not  refute  the  former  argument  concemmg  the 
acquirement  of  foreign  languages.  The  audile  masters  a  foreign 
language  more  readily  because  his  auditory  imagery  assists  him,  — 


I02        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

The  import  of  the  foregoing  arguments  is  that  the 
average  person,  the  audito-moteur,  employs  both 
his  resident  and  remote  verbal  images  to  incite  oral 
speech ;  i.e.  that  he  reUes  upon  both  his  kinaesthetic 
and  auditory  images  of  words.  The  kinaesthetic 
image  is  a  memory-image  of  the  movements  of  the  jaw 
and  lips  and  of  the  grosser  movements  of  the  tongue ; 
and  it  is  these  movements  that  are  prompted  by 
the  motor  memory.  The  more  dehcate  speech- 
movements  —  those  producing  fine  differences  in 
vowel-coloration  —  undoubtedly  occur,  in  all  but  the 
articulo-moteur,  in  response  to  the  auditory  image  of 
the  sound  desired.  The  resident,  or  kinaesthetic, 
image  is  in  the  latter  case  probably  intercalated  be- 
tween the  thought  of  the  sound  and  its  utterance; 
but  it  is  the  remote  sound-image,  the  image  of  the 
vowel-color,  that  initiates  the  process. 

With  regard  to  the  cerebral  mechanism  it  is  certain 
that  the  kinaesthetic  memory-centre  acts  directly 
upon  the  executive  motor  centres.  The  only  ques- 
tion involved  is  whether  the  auditory  centre  is  able 
to  act  directly  upon  the  executive  motor  centres  or 
only  through  the  medium  of  the  kinaesthetic  centre. 
Pathological  cases  indicate  that  the  latter  is  the  exist- 
ing condition,  but  the  matter  cannot  be  said  to  be 

not  because  the  auditory  imagery  takes  entire  charge  of  the  enun- 
dation.  Without  motor  imagery,  speech  of  any  kind  would  be 
impossible. 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH     103 

definitely  settled.  In  the  case  of  the  articulo-moteur 
the  motor  mechanism  is  actuated  exclusively  from  the 
kinaesthetic  memory-centre.  A  similar  condition  may 
prevail  with  the  audito-moteur ;  but  if  such  is  the 
case,  the  kinaesthetic  images  of  the  more  subtle 
lingual  and  laryngeal  movements  are  aroused  by  the 
auditory  images  through  association.  One  fact  is 
established  beyond  all  possibility  of  doubt,  —  that 
with  the  audito-moteur  the  integrity  of  both  the  kin- 
agsthetic  verbal  centre  and  the  auditory  verbal  centre 
is  essential  for  oral  speech.  To  express  the  matter  in 
terms  of  consciousness :  there  must  be  present  in  the 
mind  a  mental  image  of  the  feeling  of  a  word,  and  a 
mental  image  of  its  sound. 

If  the  feeling-image  were  a  perfect  representation 
of  the  movements  of  speech,  no  sound-image  would 
be  necessary.  The  sound-image  supplements  the 
feeling-image  where  the  latter  is  deficient;  in  other 
words,  its  chief  function  is  to  supply  the  more  deHcate 
movements  that  produce  the  vowel. 

A  word  may  be  said  at  this  point  concerning  the 
speech  of  the  orally  taught  deaf.  The  speech-cues 
of  the  deaf  are  both  kinaesthetic  and  articulatory- 
visual ;  the  visual  images,  Hke  the  auditory  images 
with  the  normal  person,  being  remote.  Visual  images 
cannot  incite  speech  directly,  but  it  is  probable  that 
with  some  deaf  persons  the  primary  revival  of  thought 


I04       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

takes  place  in  the  visual  centre,  and  that  the  visual 
articulative  images  then  arouse  the  images  of  feeling. 
The  process  is  analogous  to  the  visile's  seeing  images  of 
printed  words  before  he  mentally  hears  and  feels  them. 
The  deaf  person  employs  sight  as  a  substitute  for  hear- 
ing, and  he  interprets  the  spoken  words  of  another 
person  by  visually  reading  the  lips,  tongue,  and  facial 
muscles.  This  visual  appreciation  of  speech  may  be 
complete  before  the  pupil  has  gained  thorough  mas- 
tery of  his  own  speech-organs ;  ^  hence  it  follows  that 
visual  images  are  not  in  themselves  sufficient  for  the 
evocation  of  spoken  language.  The  words  must  be 
felt  as  well  as  seen.  The  delicate  movements  of  the 
larynx  and  pharynx,  as  well  as  many  movements  of 
the  tongue,  are  hidden  from  view ;  and  they  must  be 
detected  by  feeling.  It  is  this  fact  that  so  greatly 
retards  the  pupil  in  the  acquisition  of  oral  speech. 
Again,  the  difference  between  the  surd  and  sonant 
consonants  must  be  felt  rather  than  seen.  One  can- 
not detect  by  sight  the  difference  between  B  and  P, 
and  D  and  J",  for  instance.  When  the  deaf  person 
articulates  these  letters  and  such  words  as  gain  and 
cane^  and  view  and  few,  he  feels  the  difference  between 
the  surd  and  sonant  consonants.     The  only  difference 

^  "In  many  oral  classes  a  few  of  the  scholars  who  are  deficient 
in  their  speech  are  able  to  follow  their  teacher's  lips  throughout  the 
course  and  keep  as  well  to  the  fore  as  the  others."  Farrar,  "Arnold 
on  the  Education  of  the  Deaf,"  p.  219. 


MENTAL  IMAGERY  AND  VOLUNTARY  SPEECH    105 

is  in  the  point  at  which  vocalization  begins ;  and  this 
difference  makes  no  appeal  to  sight. 

When  the  deaf  pupil  has  mastered  the  art  of  speech, 
he  frequently  interprets  the  words  of  other  people 
in  terms  of  feehng: 

"The  deaf  person,  as  he  reads  the  face  of  another,  mentally 
converts  what  he  sees  into  the  organic  action  by  which  the 
sound  or  sounds  are  produced ;  so  much  so  that  he  often  repeats 
to  himself  what  he  sees  the  other  sa3dng."  ^ 

These  facts  show  that  the  kinaesthetic  images  are 
in  the  deaf  at  least  as  conspicuous  as  those  of  sight. 
In  speech,  the  visual  image  is  undoubtedly  remote ; 
its  function  is  that  of  arousing  the  kinaesthetic  image 
by  association  rather  than  that  of  acting  directly 
upon  the  executive  motor  centres. 

^  "Arnold  on  the  Education  of  the  Deaf,"  p.  217. 


CHAPTER  VI 

IMPAIRMENT  OF  THE  BRAIN-CENTRES:    APHASIA 

A  PERSON  suffering  a  lesion  in  one  of  the  memory- 
centres  incurs  obliteration  or  impairment  of  the  cor- 
responding mental  imagery.  A  lesion  in  the  left 
occipital  lobe  destroys  the  images  of  sight.  Damage 
to  the  angular  gyrus  effaces  the  visual  images  of 
printed  or  written  words.  An  injury  to  the  first 
temporal  convolution  destroys  the  auditory  memory 
of  words;  while  an  injury  to  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  third  frontal  convolution  destroys  the  kin- 
aesthetic  verbal  memory. 

The  lesion  must,  of  course,  occur  in  the  memory- 
hemisphere  of  the  brain;  that  is,  in  the  left  hemi- 
sphere in  right-handed  persons,  and  the  right  hemi- 
sphere in  left-handed  persons.  When  it  occurs  in 
the  "other  hemisphere,  the  intellectual  life  remains 
practically  unaffected.  When  there  is  degeneration 
of  the  cortex  rather  than  absolute  destruction  of  the. 
cells,  the  patient  is  still  able  to  interpret  sensations, 
though  he  is  unable  voluntarily  to  redintegrate  the 
mental  images.  The  inabiHty  to  arouse  mental 
images  is  called  amnesia.     The  inability  to  interpret 

io6 


APHASIA  107 

sensations  is  called  mind-blindness,  mind-deafness, 
etc.,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  malady.  This 
psychic  bhndness  or  deafness  usually  involves  its  cor- 
responding form  of  amnesia,  but  the  amnesia  does  not 
necessarily  involve  the  inability  to  interpret  sensa- 
tions. 

Aphasia  is  a  generic  term  applied  to  these  different 
forms  of  cerebral  defects.  It  is  applied  more  partic- 
ularly to  the  cerebral  disturbances  of  speech. 

The  significance  of  the  loss  of  a  particular  type  of 
mental  imagery  is  determined  entirely  by  the  promi- 
nence of  the  imagery  in  thought.  Deprivation  of  the 
visual  imagery  would  be  a  calamity  for  an  eye-minded 
person.  Loss  of  the  auditory  imagery  would  be  dis- 
astrous to  an  ear-minded  person.  But  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  few  people  would  be  inconvenienced  by  dis- 
possession of  their  images  of  taste  and  smell,  for  these 
images  have  httle  significance  for  the  intellectual 
life.  General  intelligence  would  suffer  little  from  the 
loss  of  the  musical  memory;  but  such  a  loss  would 
be  calamitous  for  a  composer  or  a  musician.  With 
many  persons  there  is  congenital  olfactory,  gustatory, 
or  musical  amnesia ;  more  rarely  there  is  congenital 
auditory  or  visual  amnesia.  In  such  cases  an  injury 
to  the  torpid  brain-centre  would  have  no  eft'ect  upon 
memory.  If  the  injury  were  profound,  it  would 
interfere  with  perception,  but  the  concepts  would 
remain  virtually  unaffected. 


io8       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Visual  Amnesia  and  Object-blindness 

A  lesion  in  the  visual  memory- centre  (G.  V.  C, 
Figure  5)  effaces  the  memory  for  visual  experiences. 
If  the  degeneration  of  the  cells  is  slight,  the  resultant 
disturbance  may  be  merely  visual  amnesia,  —  in- 
ability to  arouse  the  visual  images.  When  destruc- 
tion of  the  cells  is  complete,  there  is  object-blindness 
in  addition,  and  the  patient  no  longer  recognizes 
things  that  he  sees.  So  long  as  the  primary  visual 
centres  are  unimpaired,  the  patient  sees  as  well  as 
ever.  But  he  does  not  interpret  his  visual  sensations ; 
the  world,  as  he  meets  it  through  sight,  is  as  strange 
and  incomprehensible  to  him  as  to  a  new-born  child. 
He  does  not  recognize  a  chair  as  a  chair,  nor  a  book 
as  a  book.  He  does  not  recognize  his  surroundings ; 
and  if  the  attack  occurs  suddenly,  he  may  wander 
in  the  streets  imagining  that  he  is  lost.  He  may 
refuse  to  enter  his  own  home,  declaring  that  the  house 
is  unfamiliar.  He  repudiates  his  friends,  and  in 
general  conveys  the  impression  that  he  is  demented. 
Indeed,  if  he  has  no  knowledge  of  the  normal  workings 
of  his  mind,  he  may  himself  imagine  that  he  has  be- 
come insane.  A  visile  that  becomes  subject  to  such 
a  malady  has  the  most  effective  part  of  his  mind 
blotted  out.  His  intelligence  is  reduced  in  propor- 
tion as  visual  imagery  formerly  predominated  in  his 
thinking. 


APHASIA  109 

One  of  Bernheim's  ^  patients  was  shown  a  brush, 
but  he  failed  to  recognize  or  name  it. 

"Of  what  use  is  it?"  he  was  asked. 

''It  is  used  for  walking,"  he  replied;  and  when 
asked  for  a  demonstration  he  proceeded  to  make  the 
brush  take  steps.  Later  he  exclaimed,  ''No,  it  is 
used  for  making  strokes.  No  !"  ("Non,  c'est  pour 
faire  des  barres.  Non  !")  Then  after  a  few  minutes 
he  finally  recognized  it:  "It  is  used  to  brush  with; 
it  is  a  brush." 

James  ^  gives  the  following  account  of  one  of 
Charcot's  patients  that  was  suffering  from  visual 
amnesia  and  a  marked  degree  of  object-bHndness: 

"The  patient  was  Mr.  X.,  a  merchant,  born  in  Vienna, 
highly  educated,  master  of  German,  Spanish,  French,  Greek, 
and  Latin.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  malady  which  took  him 
to  Professor  Charcot,  he  read  Homer  at  sight.  He  could,  start- 
ing from  any  verse  out  of  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad,  repeat  the 
following  verses  without  hesitating,  by  heart.  Virgil  and 
Horace  were  familiar.  He  also  knew  enough  of  modern  Greek 
for  business  purposes.  Up  to  within  a  year  (from  the  time 
Charcot  saw  him)  he  enjoyed  an  exceptional  visual  memory. 
He  no  sooner  thought  of  persons  or  things,  but  features,  forms, 
and  colors  arose  with  the  same  clearness,  sharpness,  and  ac- 
curacy as  if  the  objects  stood  before  him.  When  he  tried  to 
recaU  a  fact  or  a  figure  in  his  voluminous  polyglot  correspond- 

^  Rev.  de  med.,  1885.  Quoted  by  Bastian,  "Aphasia  and  Other 
Speech  Defects,"  p.  212. 

2  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  58  flf.  The  original 
account  appears  in  Pr ogres  Medical,  21  juillet,  1883. 


no        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

ence,  the  letters  themselves  appeared  before  him  with  their 
entire  content,  irregularities,  erasures,  and  all.  At  school  he 
recited  from  a  mentally  seen  page  which  he  read  off  Hne  by 
line  and  letter  by  letter.  In  making  computations,  he  ran  his 
mental  eye  down  imaginary  columns  of  figures,  and  performed 
in  this  way  the  most  varied  operations  of  arithmetic.  He  could 
never  think  of  a  passage  in  a  play  without  the  entire  scene, 
stage,  actors,  audience,  appearing  to  him.  He  had  been  a  great 
traveller.  Being  a  good  draughtsman,  he  used  to  sketch  views 
which  pleased  him ;  and  his  memory  always  brought  back  the 
entire  landscape  exactly.  If  he  thought  of  a  conversation,  a 
saying,  an  engagement,  the  place,  the  people,  the  entire  scene 
rose  before  his  mind. 

"His  auditory  memory  was  always  deficient,  or  at  least 
secondary.     He  had  no  taste  for  music. 

"A  year  and  a  half  previous  to  examination,  after  business 
anxieties,  loss  of  sleep,  appetite,  etc.,  he  noticed  suddenly  one 
day  an  extraordinary  change  in  himself.  After  complete  con- 
fusion, there  came  a  violent  contrast  between  his  old  and  his 
new  state.  Everything  about  him  seemed  so  new  and  foreign 
that  at  first  he  thought  he  must  be  going  mad.  He  was  ner- 
vous and  irritable.  Although  he  saw  all  things  distinct,  he  had 
entirely  lost  his  memory  for  forms  and  colors.  On  ascertain- 
ing this,  he  became  reassured  as  to  his  sanity.  He  soon  dis- 
covered that  he  could  carry  on  his  affairs  by  using  his  memory 
in  an  altogether  new  way.  He  can  now  describe  clearly  the 
difference  between  his  two  conditions. 

"Every  time  he  returns  to  A.,  from  which  place  business 
often  calls  him,  he  seems  to  himself  as  if  entering  a  strange 
city.  He  views  the  monuments,  houses,  and  streets  with  the 
same  surprise  as  if  he  saw  them  for  the  first  time.  Gradually, 
however,  his  memory  returns,  and  he  finds  himself  at  home 
again.    When  asked  to  describe  the  principal  public  place  of 


APHASIA  III 

the  town,  he  answered,  'I  know  that  it  is  there,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  imagine  it,  and  I  can  tell  you  nothing  about  it.' 
He  has  often  drawn  the  port  of  A,  To-day  he  vainly  tries  to 
trace  its  principal  outlines.  Asked  to  draw  a  minaret,  he  re- 
flects, says  it  is  a  square  tower,  and  draws,  rudely,  four  lines, 
one  for  ground,  one  for  top,  and  two  for  sides.  Asked  to  draw 
an  arcade,  he  says,  'I  remember  that  it  contains  semicircular 
arches,  and  that  two  of  them  meeting  at  an  angle  make  a  vault, 
but  how  it  looks  I  am  absolutely  unable  to  imagine.'  The 
profile  of  a  man  which  he  drew  by  request  was  as  if  drawn  by 
a  Httle  child ;  and  yet  he  confessed  that  he  had  been  helped  to 
draw  it  by  looking  at  the  bystanders.  Similarly  he  drew  a 
shapeless  scribble  for  a  tree. 

"He  can  no  more  remember  his  wife's  and  children's  faces 
than  he  can  remember  the  port  of  A.  Even  after  being  with 
them  for  some  time  they  seem  unusual  to  him.  He  forgets 
his  own  face,  and  once  spoke  to  his  image  in  a  mirror,  taking  it 
for  a  stranger.  He  complains  of  his  loss  of  feeling  for  colors. 
'  My  wife  has  black  hair,  this  I  know ;  but  I  can  no  more  recall 
its  color  than  I  can  her  person  and  features.'  This  visual  am- 
nesia extends  to  dating  objects  from  his  childhood's  years  — 
paternal  mansion,  etc.,  forgotten. 

"No  other  disturbances  but  this  loss  of  visual  images.  Now 
when  he  seeks  something  in  his  correspondence,  he  must  rum- 
mage among  the  letters  like  other  men,  until  he  meets  the  pas- 
sage. He  can  recall  only  the  first  few  verses  of  the  Iliad,  and 
must  grope  to  read  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Horace.  Figures 
which  he  adds  he  must  now  whisper  to  himself.  He  realizes 
clearly  that  he  must  help  his  memory  out  with  auditor^'-  images, 
which  he  does  with  effort.  The  words  and  expressions  which 
he  recalls  seem  now  to  echo  in  his  ear,  an  altogether  novel  sen- 
sation for  him.  If  he  wishes  to  learn  by  heart  anything,  a 
series  of  phrases  for  example,  he  must  read  them  several  times 


112        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

aloud,  so  as  to  impress  his  ear.  When  later  he  repeats  the  thing 
in  question,  the  sensation  of  inward  hearing  which  precedes 
articulation  rises  up  in  his  mind.  This  feeling  was  formerly- 
unknown  to  him.  He  speaks  French  fluently,  but  afi&rms  that 
he  can  no  longer  think  in  French;  but  must  get  his  French 
words  by  translating  them  from  Spanish  or  German,  the  lan- 
guages of  his  childhood.  He  dreams  no  more  in  visual  terms, 
but  only  in  words,  usually  Spanish  words.  A  certain  degree 
of  verbal  blindness  affects  him  —  he  is  troubled  by  the  Greek 
alphabet,  etc." 

With  an  ear-minded  person  a  corresponding  cere- 
bral lesion  would  have  resulted  less  seriously.  The 
visual  images  would,  of  course,  have  been  obhterated ; 
but  their  loss  would  not  have  been  so  grave  a  matter 
for  a  person  living  in  a  world  of  sounds.  Conversely, 
the  loss  of  the  auditory  images  would  have  been  a 
matter  of  Httle  moment  for  the  patient  in  question, 
for  so  long  as  the  verbal  imagery  were  not  affected, 
the  intellectual  faculties  would  have  been  little 
impaired. 

Defects  of  the  visual  memory  are  often  associated 
with  homonymous  hemianopsia^  —  obliteration  of  one 
half  of  the  visual  field.  This  is  due  to  the  invasion, 
by  the  degenerative  process,  of  the  primary  visual 
area  in  the  cuneate  lobule  and  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood. The  condition  is  one  of  physical  blindness. 
It  is  anomalous  only  in  the  fact  that  it  affects  but  one- 
half  of  the  field  of  vision.  If  lesions  occur  in  both 
cuneate  lobules,  the  condition  differs  in  no  way  from 


APHASIA  113 

ordinary  physical  blindness.  When  the  lesion  is  lim- 
ited to  the  primary  visual  area,  there  is  no  impairment 
of  the  visual  memory-images. 

Visual  Verbal  Amnesm,  Word-blindness,  and 

Agraphia 

A  lesion  in  the  angular  gyrus  (F.  V.  in  Figure  5) 
annihilates  the  visual  images  of  printed  and  written 
words.  A  superficial  injury  may  entail  merely  the 
inabihty  to  redintegrate  the  visual  images  spon- 
taneously. In  this  case  there  is  visual  verbal  amnesia 
with  agraphia  —  the  inabihty  to  write.  The  patient 
cannot  write  because  he  is  unable  to  recall  the  appear- 
ance of  the  word  he  wishes  to  pen.  When  the  in- 
jury is  profound,  the  patient  is  unable  to  recognize 
words  that  he  sees,  and  the  resulting  condition  is  one 
of  word-blindness  ^  in  addition  to  the  visual  verbal 
amnesia  and  agraphia.  The  patient  occasionally 
retains  his  memory  for  letters  and  figures.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  letters  and  figures  are 
learned  first  and  are  consequently  more  deeply  seated. 
In  many  instances  the  explanation  is  probably  the 
existence  of  number-forms  subserved  by  the  general 
visual  centre  rather  than  the  visual  verbal  centre. 

The  word-blind  patient  understands  all  that  is  said 
to  him,  and  thinks  clearly  in  words  so  long  as  the 
auditory   centre   is   not   affected.     His   difficulty   is 

*  Word-blindness  is  sometimes  called  alexia. 


114        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

merely  in  interpreting  printed  or  written  words.  He 
sees  the  words  in  front  of  him,  but  they  convey  no 
more  meaning  than  they  would  if  they  were  upside- 
down,  or  were  written  in  a  foreign  language. 

The  agraphia  is  not  always  complete.  The  patient 
often  retains  the  ability  to  write  his  own  signature, 
and  perhaps  a  few  short  words  or  letters.  These  are 
probably  revived  in  kinassthetic  imagery,  —  the  pa- 
tient writing  by  feeling.  He  can  copy  writing  that  is 
put  before  him,  but  he  does  not  do  so  understandingly. 
He  copies  print  in  print,  and  script  in  script,  writing 
hke  a  forger  that  copies  an  inverted  signature. 
Occasionally  the  word-blind  person  manages  to  divine 
the  meaning  of  a  written  word  by  tracing  it  with 
his  finger.  In  this  case,  when  the  angular  gyrus  is 
damaged,  he  interprets  the  word  entirely  by  feeling. 
In  attempting  to  write,  the  patient  may  produce 
a  jumble  of  letters,  likewise  by  feeling.  This  per- 
version of  the  faculty  of  writing  is  called  paragraphia. 

The  following  is  a  typical  case  of  word-blindness, 
visual  verbal  amnesia,  and  agraphia,  resulting  from 
damage  to  the  angular  gyrus  :  ^ 

"A  female,  aged  6^),  admitted  into  the  Asylum  of  Villejuif 
on  the  29th  of  Sept.,  1891.  Was  intelligent,  but  had  lost  the 
power  of  reading  and  writing.     Being  anxious  to  regain  the 

^  Wyllie,  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  pp.  349  f.  Case  reported  by 
S6rieux,  Comptes  rendus  des  seances  de  la  Societe  de  Biologic,  Jan- 
vier, 1892. 


APHASIA  115 

power  of  reading  and  writing,  she  practised  much  with  her 
pen ;  but  her  efforts  resulted  only  in  such  confused  collections 
of  letters  as  the  following  —  these  being,  moreover,  written 
badly  —  in  a  tremulous  hand  —  '  an  um  aa  monon  mono  muosir 
The  intelligence  was  normal,  and  there  were  no  paralytic  symp- 
toms whatever.  Vision  was  intact,  and  it  is  expressly  stated 
that  there  was  no  hemianopsia.  It  was  as  impossible  for  the 
patient  to  read  as  to  write.  She  could,  however,  recognize  a 
few  of  the  individual  letters ;  and  when  a  word  was  composed 
of  these  she  could  sometimes  spell  it  out  and  pronounce  it." 

At  the  autopsy  there  was  found  a  softening  in  the 
angular  gyrus  and  supra-marginal  convolution,  i.e. 
in  the  visual  verbal  area. 

Word-blindness,  strangely  enough,  does  not  always 
entail  visual  verbal  amnesia.  If  the  word-blindness 
were  invariably  due  to  destruction  of  the  angular 
gyrus,  amnesia  would  be  an  inevitable  concomitant. 
However,  it  is  sometimes  induced  by  a  subcortical 
lesion  severing  the  visual  memory-centre  from  the 
primary  visual  area.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
visual  sensation  is  unable  to  arouse  the  visual  memory- 
image  ;  thus  no  perception  can  take  place.  But  so 
long  as  the  cortical  cells  in  the  angular  gyrus  are  un- 
affected, the  visual  images  of  words  remain  unim- 
paired. The  patient  writes  spontaneously  or  from 
dictation  with  the  greatest  ease,  exciting  the  graphic- 
motor  centre  from  the  visual  verbal  centre.  But 
he  cannot  read  the  words  that  he  has  written,  for  the 
excitation  in  the  primary  visual  area  is  unable  to 


ii6        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

reach  the  visual  memory-centre.  Occasionally  the 
patient  can  interpret  writing  by  tracing  the  words 
with  a  pen  or  with  his  finger.  In  this  case  the  vis- 
ual memory-images  are  aroused  by  the  kinaesthetic 
impressions. 

The  following  is  a  fairly  typical  case  of  subcortical 
word-blindness :  ^ 

"The  patient  was  a  man  aged  68.  After  a  number  of  attacks 
of  tingling  in  the  right  leg  and  arm,  he  suddenly  perceived  that 
he  could  not  read  a  single  word ;  but  he  still  retained  the  power 
of  writing,  and  indeed  could  write  with  perfect  ease.  For 
four  years  he  remained  in  this  condition  —  totally  word-  and 
even  letter-blind,  but  able  to  write  correctly  whole  pages  of 
manuscript  though  quite  unable  to  read  them  after  they  were 
written.  He  had  also  lost  the  power  of  reading  musical  notes, 
though  he  could  still  sing  well.  He  retained  the  power  of 
reading  figures,  and  could  do  mental  calculations  as  well  as 
formerly.     He  had  right  homonjrmous  hemianopsia. 

"  Ten  days  before  his  death,  he  became  suddenly  affected 
with  very  pronounced  paraphasia,  and  with  total  agraphia; 
without,  however,  any  paralysis  of  motion  or  loss  of  conscious- 
ness. There  was  no  trace  of  word-deafness ;  and  he  retained 
his  intelligence  to  the  end." 

At  the  autopsy  there  was  found  an  old  lesion  that 
destroyed  the  primary  visual  area  in  the  left  hemi- 
sphere (this  accounting  for  the  right  homonymous 
hemianopsia)  and  the  commissural  fibres  uniting  the 

^Wyllie,  "Disorders  of  speech,"  pp.  339  f.  Case  reported  by 
D^jerine,  Comptes  rendus  des  seances  de  la  Societe  de  Biologie,  mars, 
1892. 


APHASIA  117 

angular  gyrus  with  the  primary  visual  area  of  the 
right  hemisphere.  Thus  the  patient  was  blind  in 
one-half  of  the  field  of  vision ;  while  impressions  from 
the  other  half  were  unable  to  reach  the  memory-centre. 
These  facts  explain  the  word-blindness.  The  in- 
tegrity of  the  angular  gyrus  explains  the  absence  of 
agraphia.  A  recent  lesion  in  the  angular  and  supra- 
marginal  convolutions  accounted  for  the  disturb- 
ances that  occurred  just  previous  to  death. 

A  similar  case  is  recorded  by  Ballet/  but  he  inter- 
prets his  case  somewhat  differently.  He  supposes 
the  patient  to  have  suffered  an  injury  to  the  angular 
gyrus,  thus  incurring  obliteration  of  the  visual  images 
of  words.  In  the  absence  of  autopsical  examination 
it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  determine  exactly  what 
happened.  There  was  right  homonymous  hemianop- 
sia, so  it  is  probable  that  the  injury  was  similar  to 
that  in  the  preceding  case.  The  patient  was  able  to 
write.  Ballet  supposes  that  he  rehed  upon  his  graphic- 
motor  images.  Such  a  condition  would  be  possible 
in  the  motile,  especially  if  he  mentally  spelled  each 
word  and  wrote  the  letters  as  he  mentally  pronounced 
them.  It  is  scarcely  conceivable  that  even  the  motile 
should  write  long  words  by  feeling,  without  assistance 
from  other  forms  of  verbal  imagery.  Ballet's  ex- 
planation is  not  an  impossible,  though  it  seems  an 
improbable,  one. 

^  "Le  langage  int6rieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed,,  pp.  104  fif. 


ii8       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

There  seem  to  be  no  cases  of  pure  agraphia  on  record. 
Agraphia  does  occur  without  word-bHndness,  but  it 
is  usually  compHcated  by  paresis  or  cutaneous  an- 
aesthesia, and  the  patient  is  physically  unable  to 
write.  The  presence  of  paresis  is  accounted  for  by 
the  proximity  of  the  executive  motor  centres  to 
the  kinassthetic  memory-centres.  In  many  cases 
agraphia  is  accompanied  by  motor  or  auditory 
aphasia,  and  the  inability  to  write  may  be  due  to 
the  obHteration  of  internal  language. 

BaUet  ^  records  a  curious  case  of  kinaesthetic  amnesia 
that  came  under  the  observation  of  Charcot.  The 
patient  had  lost  his  ability  to  play  the  trombone. 
He  ''had  lost  the  memory  of  the  associated  movements 
of  the  mouth  and  hand  required  for  playing  the  in- 
strument. All  the  other  motor  memories  were  intact. 
This  musician  had  forgotten  the  manipulation  of  the 
trombone,  just  as  others  forget  the  manipulation  of 
the  pen." 

Aphemia 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  cerebral  dis- 
turbances that  more  directly  affect  the  faculty  of  oral 
speech.  Aphemia,  being  the  simplest  disorder,  will 
be  considered  first.  Aphemia  is  a  disturbance  of 
speech  due  to  lesion  of  the  purely  executive  motor 
mechanism.  The  seat  of  the  lesion  may  be  the 
cortical  motor  centre  at  the  foot  of  the  precentral 

1  Loc.  cit,,  p.  134. 


APHASIA  119 

convolution,  or  the  bulbar  motor  centres,  or  some 
point  in  the  efferent  tracts.  The  aphemia  usually 
manifests  itself  in  complete  mutism.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  disturbance  of  internal  language,  —  either 
visual,  auditory,  or  kinaesthetic.  There  is  no  word- 
deafness  or  word-blindness. 

The  absence  of  word-deafness  is  easily  demonstrated 
by  the  readiness  with  which  the  patient  obeys  orally 
imparted  instructions.  If  he  is  told  to  take  out  his 
watch  and  wind  it,  or  to  take  a  book  and  open  it  at 
a  certain  page,  he  immediately  obeys.  Absence  of 
word-blindness  is  shown  by  the  patient's  ability  to 
comply  with  written  instructions.  Absence  of  amnesia 
is  not  so  readily  determined,  for  the  patient  may 
respond  to  external  impressions  and  yet  be  unable  to 
arouse  the  mental  images  spontaneously.  Disturb- 
ances in  the  motor  centre  are  very  frequently  accom- 
panied by  hemiplegia,  —  unilateral  paralysis.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  lesion  is  seldom  limited  to 
the  mechanism  concerned  with  speech,  but  invades 
other  regions  as  well.  When  hemiplegia  is  present, 
the  patient  has  great  difficulty  in  expressing  himself 
in  writing.  However,  by  using  the  left  hand  he  can 
express,  in  a  somewhat  labored  way,  thoughts  that 
occur  to  him  spontaneously.  This  ability  shows  that 
he  is  able  to  think  in  verbal  imagery.  His  abiHty 
to  perform  arithmetical  problems,  etc.,  also  shows 
that  internal  language  is  unimpaired.     The  Proust- 


120       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Lichtheim  test  is  often  applied  to  ascertain  the 
condition  of  the  patient's  internal  language.  If  the 
patient's  verbal  thought  is  unaffected,  he  is  able  to 
indicate  the  number  of  syllables  in  a  word,  —  the 
name  of  an  object  shown  to  him,  for  instance.  This 
he  does  by  making  expiratory  efforts,  by  pressing 
his  interlocutor's  hand,  by  tapping  on  the  table,  etc. 
In  like  manner  he  indicates  the  number  of  letters  in 
a  word ;  thus  demonstrating  his  abihty  to  spell  the 
word  mentally. 

The  ability  of  the  patient  to  indicate  the  number  of 
syllables  in  a  word  is  regarded  by  some  pathologists 
as  evidence  of  the  retention  of  the  kinaesthetic  verbal 
images.  The  ability  to  comply  with  the  test  is  proof 
of  the  existence  of  some  form  of  verbal  imagery,  but 
it  does  not  seem  to  follow  that  the  imagery  must 
necessarily  contain  the  kinaesthetic  element.  If  the 
audile  were  able  to  make  the  words  resound  in  his 
mind  syllable  by  syllable,  he  could  certainly  comply 
with  the  conditions  of  the  test.  In  the  audile  it 
would  be  scarcely  possible  to  differentiate  pure  aphe- 
mia  from  loss  of  the  kinassthetic  memory  of  words. 

Doctor  Samuel  Johnson  thus  describes,  in  a  letter 
to  Mrs.  Thrale,  a  temporary  attack  of  aphemia  that 
befell  him  in  his  seventy-fourth  year: 

"On  Monday,  the  i6th,  I  sat  for  my  picture,  and  walked  a 
considerable  way  with  little  inconvenience.  In  the  afternoon 
and  evening,  I  felt  myself  light  and  easy,  and  began  to  plan 


APHASIA  121 

schemes  of  life.  Thus  I  went  to  bed,  and  in  a  short  time  waked 
and  sat  up,  as  has  long  been  my  custom,  when  I  felt  a  confusion 
and  indistinctness  in  my  head,  which  lasted  I  suppose  about 
half  a  minute.  I  was  alarmed  and  prayed  God  that,  however 
He  might  afflict  my  body,  He  would  spare  my  understanding. 
This  prayer,  that  I  might  try  the  integrity  of  my  faculties, 
I  made  in  Latin  verse.  The  lines  were  not  very  good,  but  I 
knew  them  not  to  be  very  good ;  I  made  them  easily  and  con- 
cluded myself  to  be  unimpaired  in  my  faculties."  ^ 

This  attack  of  aphemia  proved  to  be  temporary. 

The  following  is  a  case  reported  by  Dejerine.^ 
The  patient,  an  accountant,  had  become  speechless 
after  an  apoplectic  attack. 

"He  understands  readily  all  questions  addressed  to  him, 
either  orally  or  by  writing.  He  recognizes  all  external  objects. 
Cannot  utter  aloud  a  single  word  either  spontaneously,  by  read- 
ing, repeating,  or  singing.  But  he  can  indicate  the  number  of 
syllables  in  the  words  he  wishes  to  utter,  by  so  many  expiratory 
efforts  or  pressures  with  the  fingers.  By  bringing  one's  ear 
quite  close  to  his  mouth  one  can  distinguish  certain  words  pro- 
nounced in  an  excessively  low  voice  —  less  than  a  whisper. 
Some  of  these  words  are  not  pronounced  correctly,  the  articu- 
lation of  the  labials  being  especially  interfered  with  —  the  h 
being  pronounced  like  an  m.  And  the  same  mistakes  occur 
when  he  attempts  to  read  or  repeat  a  phrase  as  when  attempt- 
ing to  utter  them  spontaneously.  .  .  .  The  right  hemiplegia 
being  slight,  the  patient  can  make  use  of  a  pen,  and  writes 
either  spontaneously,  from  dictation,  or  in  copjdng.  This  he 
does  fairly  legibly  and  with  no  mistakes." 

^  Quoted  by  Bastian,  "  Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects," 
p.  66.  ^  Quoted  by  Bastian,  loc.  cii.,  p.  70. 


122        THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

At  the  necropsy  there  were  found  three  small  foci 
of  softening :  one  beneath  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
fissure  of  Rolando,  one  beneath  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  third  frontal  convolution,  and  one  be- 
neath the  foot  of  the  precentral  convolution.  Either 
of  these  last  two  lesions  might  have  caused  the  aphe- 
mia.  The  one  beneath  the  kinaesthetic  memory-centre 
would  have  isolated  the  image-centres  from  the  motor 
region.  The  one  at  the  foot  of  the  precentral  con- 
volution would  have  interfered  with  the  l^emission  of 
the  motor  current. 

Articulatory-kin^sthetic  Aphasia 

Articulatory-kincEsthetic  aphasia,  or  motor  aphasia^ 
is  due  to  the  total  or  partial  obliteration  of  the  kin- 
aesthetic  images  of  articulatory  movements.  It  is 
caused  by  lesion  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  third 
frontal  convolution  of  the  left  hemisphere  {K.  V.  in 
Figure  5).  Motor  aphasia  is  usually  associated  with 
right  hemiplegia,  this  being  due  to  the  extension 
of  the  lesion  into  the  true  motor  area  of  the  brain. 
Strictly  delimited  lesions  do  not  induce  hemiplegia. 
The  onset  of  the  malady  is  usually  abrupt ;  and  if  the 
lesion  is  extensive,  the  patient  is  speechless  from  the 
beginning.  If  the  patient  is  an  audile,  there  is  no 
verbal  amnesia  so  long  as  the  auditory  area  is  un- 
affected. The  patient  has  clear  acoustic  images  of 
words,  but  is  unable  to  translate  them  into  kinaes- 


APHASIA  123 

thetic  images  in  order  that  he  may  express  them.  He 
is  in  the  position  of  a  man  that  can  recall  orchestral 
music,  but  has  no  means  of  externalizing  his  acoustic 
thoughts.  If  the  patient  is  an  articulo-moteur,  in- 
ternal language  is  annihilated.  Since  the  average 
person  is  an  audito-moteur,  there  is  usually  con- 
siderable amnesia.  Patients  with  motor  aphasia 
interpret  spoken  language  with  varying  degrees  of 
facility.  At  the  beginning  of  the  attack  there  is 
frequently  considerable  word-deafness  owing  to  the 
inabihty  of  the  acoustic  impressions  to  arouse  their 
kinaesthetic  associates. 

The  following  is  a  case  of  aphasia  due  to  the  partial 
destruction  of  the  kinaesthetic  memory-centre.  The 
case  is  reported  by  Collins.^ 

"Mrs.  X — ,  a  widow,  sixty-three  years  old,  the  mother  of 
eight  children,  has  had  a  vigorous,  active  life,  free  from  ill 
health,  save  that  twelve  years  ago  she  suffered  severely  from 
attacks  of  renal  calculi.  During  the  past  year  or  two  she  has 
complained  of  indigestion  and  more  recently  of  a  dull,  aching 
sensation  in  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck,  with  occasional 
attacks  of  very  severe  pain  in  the  left  temple.  For  a  few  weeks 
previous  to  the  beginning  of  her  present  symptoms  she  suffered 
from  insomnia,  from  irritability,  nervousness,  and  forgetful- 
ness.  Her  son,  a  physician,  gives  the  following  account  of 
the  onset  of  her  aphasic  symptoms.  One  week  before  consult- 
ing me  she  discovered,  while  making  a  call,  that  her  speech  had 
become,  without  warning,  very  much  embarrassed.  She  could 
not  finish  the  sentence  she  had  started  to  speak.     She  forgot 

1  "The  Faculty  of  Speech,"  pp.  422  ff. 


124       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

what  she  wanted  to  say.  She  chafed  under  this  impotence  and 
got  very  much  excited.  She  returned  home  in  a  street  car,  and 
was  much  astonished  to  discover  on  looking  at  the  signs  with 
which  the  cars  are  Hned  that  she  was  quite  unable  to  compre- 
hend their  signification.  She  could  see  the  letters  and  words, 
she  knew  that  they  were  letters  and  words,  but  they  conveyed 
no  meaning  to  her.  \Vhen  she  got  home  she  tried  to  tell  her 
family  about  her  disability,  but  was  able  to  say  only  a  few  words, 
and  these  were  entirely  disconnected.  After  trying  to  speak 
for  a  time  she  became  excited  and  began  to  cry.  On  the  follow- 
ing day  when  she  awakened,  she  could  say  only  'Yes'  and 
'No,'  but  as  the  day  wore  on  her  vocabulary  became  somewhat 
larger.  It  was  particularly  remarked  that  when  she  was  ex- 
cited or  very  emotional  sometimes  words  would  flow  out  of  her 
mouth  in  an  astonishing  manner.  From  that  time  until  I 
saw  her  there  had  not  been  very  much  change  in  her  capacity 
for  speech  production. 

"The  following  is  a  stenographic  report  of  the  examination 
to  determine  the  disorder  of  voluntary  speech.  In  response 
to  the  question  to  tell  me  all  that  she  could  concerning  the  onset 
and  course  of  her  symptoms,  she  said : 

"'Well,  mem-mem  —  three  weeks,  m-m-em  —  feel-m-em- 
em  —  sometimes  [prolonged  pause,  seems  to  be  thinking] 
couldn't  thought  —  no  thought  —  forget  —  but  —  eh  —  last 
Friday  [another  prolonged  pause]  am  —  no  —  noticed  they  — 
I  couldn't  —  eh  —  I  [prolonged  pause]  I  couldn't  tell,  am,  I 
don't,  I  can't,  can't  express  [explosively]  I  can't  tell  —  I  can- 
not [points  to  her  head  and  looks  weary].  It  seems,  I  can't, 
last  Monday,  con-con-nects  —  sentence,  two  or  three  words  — 
gone.  Was  —  gone,  blank,  didn't  know.  Can't  think,  was 
gone,  forget  —  forget  everything.     Couldn't,  couldn't,  can't.' 

"To  test  her  capacity  to  repeat,  I  asked  her  to  say  after  me : 
*I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight.'     Her  reply  was: 


APHASIA  125 


((  c- 


I  stood  —  the  —  night/  said  with  great  effort,  and  with 
apparent  endeavor  to  repeat  each  word  as  quickly  as  they  fell 
from  my  lips. 

"'Still  sits  the  schoolhouse  by  the  road  ?  ' 

" 'Forget  —  yes  —  the  —  the  —  s's's'  forget  —  road.' " 

The  patient's  internal  language  was  probably  as 
defective  as  her  speech.  She  indicated  her  inability 
to  repeat  inwardly  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  she  was 
unable  to  write  either  spontaneously  or  from  dicta- 
tion. She  understood  fairly  well  what  was  said  to 
her ;  hence  the  auditory  centre  could  not  have  been 
destroyed.  Destruction  of  the  kinaesthetic  centre  was 
incomplete ;  otherwise  the  patient  would  have  been 
mute. 

Destruction  of  Broca's  convolution  does  not  neces- 
sarily entail  obliteration  of  internal  language.  If  the 
patient  happens  to  be  an  audile,  there  may  be  no  amne- 
sia verbalis  whatever.  In  fact,  the  case  does  not  then 
differ  in  its  symptoms  from  one  of  pure  aphemia.  In 
the  following  case  of  articulatory-kinassthetic  aphasia 
(recorded  by  Guido  Banti)  the  patient  was  mani- 
festly an  audile,  and  he  thought  in  auditory  verbal 
images  after  the  kinaesthetic  images  had  been  ex- 
punged :  ^ 

1  Bastian,  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  89.  Case  re- 
ported by  Guido  Banti  in  "Afasia  e  sue  Forme,  Lo  Sperimental," 
1886,  LVII,  obs.  II,  p.  270,  and  quoted  by  Prevost  in  the  Revue 
medicale  de  la  Suisse  Romande,  June  30,  1895. 


126        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"A  right-handed  man,  aged  36,  who  was  able  to  read  and 
write  correctly,  had  a  sudden  apoplectic  attack  in  1877.  Re- 
covering consciousness  in  a  few  minutes  he  was  found  to  be 
suffering  from  right  hemiplegia  and  loss  of  speech.  The  paraly- 
sis of  the  limbs  disappeared  almost  completely  during  the 
following  night,  though  the  inabihty  to  speak  persisted. 

"The  next  day  he  was  admitted  into  hospital,  and  on  most 
careful  examination  his  condition  was  found  by  Guido  Banti 
to  be  as  follows: 

"'The  motihty  of  the  limbs  on  the  right  side  had  returned 
to  their  normal  condition.  There  was  no  trace  of  paralysis 
of  the  face  or  of  the  tongue.  The  patient  made  ineffectual 
attempts  to  speak ;  he  could  not  articulate  a  single  word,  not 
even  isolated  syllables.  He  was  much  affected  by  this  mutism, 
and  sought  to  make  himself  understood  by  gestures.  I  asked 
him  if  he  knew  how  to  write,  and  after  he  had  made  a  gesture  in 
the  affirmative  I  gave  him  what  was  necessary  and  told  him  to 
write  his  name,  which  he  did  immediately.  I  put  various  other 
questions  to  him,  to  which  he  replied  similarly  by  writing.  I 
told  him  to  give  me  a  description  of  his  illness,  and  he  wrote 
without  hesitation  the  details  above  reported.  I  showed  him 
various  objects,  pieces  of  money,  etc.,  telling  him  to  write  their 
names,  and  he  did  so  without  making  any  mistakes.  Then 
instead  of  giving  him  these  directions  by  word  of  mouth,  I 
wrote  them  for  him  in  order  to  thoroughly  convince  myself 
that  he  was  able  to  understand  writing.  He  replied  to  these 
questions  with  perfect  correctness.  He  always  wrote  very 
rapidly  and  did  not  seem  to  hesitate  to  choose  his  words.  He 
made  no  mistakes  in  syntax  or  orthography.  He  could  under- 
stand equally  well  ordinary  writing  and  print,  and  when  one 
spoke  to  him  he  grasped  at  once  the  meaning  of  the  questions, 
and  never  wished  to  have  them  repeated.  I  next  wrote  some 
most  simple  words  such  as  "pain,"  "vin,"  etc.,  and  urged  him 


APHASIA  127 

ineffectually  to  read  them  aloud.  I  then  pronounced  myself 
some  of  the  words,  directing  him  to  repeat  them.  He  appeared 
to  watch  with  great  attention  the  movements  of  my  lips  whilst 
I  spoke ;  he  made  some  ineffectual  efforts  to  obey,  but  he 
never  succeeded  in  pronouncing  a  single  word.' 

"This  patient  died  in  February,  1882,  from  an  aneurism 
of  the  aorta ;  and  a  patch  of  yellow  softening  was  found  situated 
in  the  posterior  third  of  the  third  left  frontal  convolution,  and 
extending  for  some  millimetres  only  into  the  white  substance." 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  kinaesthetic  memory-centre 
was  completely  destroyed. 

If  the  patient  had  happened  to  be  an  articulo- 
moteur,  there  would  undoubtedly  have  been  com- 
plete verbal  amnesia.  Taking  another  point  of  view 
—  if  the  lesion  had  occurred  with  this  patient  in 
the  first  temporal  convolution,  the  auditory  images 
of  words  would  have  been  blotted  out,  and  the 
patient  would  probably  have  been  incapable  of 
verbal  thought. 

The  two  following  cases  show  clearly  the  different 
consequences  that  an  affection  of  Broca's  centre  may 
entail.  Both  cases  exhibit  jargon-aphasia ;  but  in 
one,  internal  language  remained  intact,  while  in  the 
other  it  was  distorted. 

The  first  is  one  of  Dr.  Osborn's  cases,  quoted  by 
Bastian  in  ''The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind."  ^ 

^  "The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind,"  pp.  667  ff.  Dr.  Osborn's 
account  appears  in  the  Dublin  Journal  of  Medical  and  Chemical 
Science,  Vol.  IV,  p.  157. 


128       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"A  scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  twenty-six  years  of 
age,  of  very  considerable  literary  attainments,  and  well  versed 
in  French,  Italian,  and  German,  whilst  sitting  at  breakfast, 
after  having  bathed  in  a  neighboring  lake,  suddenly  had  an 
apoplectic  fit.  He  was  reported  to  have  become  'sensible  in 
about  a  fortnight,'  but,  although  restored  to  the  use  of  his  in- 
tellect, he  had  the  mortification  of  finding  himself  deprived  of 
speech.  He  spoke,  but  what  he  said  was  quite  unintelligible, 
although  he  labored  under  no  paralytic  affliction  and  uttered 
a  variety  of  syllables  with  the  greatest  apparent  ease.  When 
he  came  to  Dublin  his  extraordinary  jargon  led  to  his  being 
treated  as  a  foreigner  in  the  hotel  where  he  stopped ;  and  when 
he  went  to  the  college  to  see  a  friend  he  was  unable  to  express 
his  wish  to  the  gate  porter,  and  succeeded  only  by  pointing  to 
the  apartments  which  his  friend  had  occupied. 

"Dr.  Osborn,  after  frequent  careful  investigations,  ascer- 
tained the  following  particulars  concerning  his  patient :  — 

"i.   He  perfectly  comprehended  every  word  said  to  him. 

"2.  He  perfectly  comprehended  printed  language.  He 
continued  to  read  a  newspaper  every  day ;  and  when  examined 
proved  that  he  had  a  clear  recollection  of  all  that  he  read. 
Having  procured  a  copy  of  Andral's  'Pathology'  in  French 
he  read  it  with  great  diligence,  having  lately  intended  to  em- 
brace the  medical  profession. 

"3.  He  expressed  his  ideas  in  writing  with  considerable 
fluency;  and  when  he  failed  it  appeared  to  arise  merely  from 
confusion,  and  not  from  inability,  the  words  being  orthographi- 
cally  correct,  but  sometimes  not  in  their  proper  places. 

"4.  His  general  mental  power  seemed  unimpaired.  He 
wrote  correctly  answers  to  historical  questions ;  he  translated 
Latin  sentences  accurately ;  he  added  and  subtracted  numbers 
of  different  denominations  with  uncommon  readiness;  he  also 
played  well  at  the  game  of  draughts. 


APHASIA  129 

"5.  His  power  of  repeating  words  after  another  person 
was  almost  confined  to  certain  monosyllables ;  and  in  repeating 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  he  could  never  pronounce  k,  q,  u, 
V,  w,  X,  and  z,  although  he  often  uttered  these  sounds  in  attempt- 
ing to  pronounce  the  other  letters.  The  letter  i,  also,  he  was 
very  seldom  able  to  pronounce. 

"6.  In  order  to  ascertain  and  place  on  record  the  peculiar 
imperfection  of  language  which  he  exhibited,  Dr.  Osborn  selected 
and  laid  before  him  the  following  sentence  from  the  bye-laws 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  viz.  '//  shall  he  in  the  power  of  the 
College  to  examine  or  not  examine  any  Licentiate  previous  to  his 
admission  to  a  Fellowship,  as  they  shall  think  fit  J 

"Having  set  him  to  read,  he  read  as  follows:  —  'An  the  he 
what  in  the  temother  of  the  trothotodoo  to  majorum  or  that  emi- 
drate  eni  enikrastrai  mestreit  to  ketra  totomhreidei  to  ra  fromtreido 
as  that  kekritestJ  The  same  passage  was  presented  to  him  a 
few  days  afterwards  and  he  then  read  it  as  follows: — 'Be 
mather  he  in  the  kondreit  of  the  cofnpestret  to  samtreis  amtreit 
emtreido  and  iemtreido  mestreiterso  to  his  eftreido  turn  bried  re- 
deriso  of  deid  daf  drit  des  trestJ 

"He  generally  knew  that  he  spoke  incorrectly,  although  he 
was  quite  unable  to  remedy  the  defect." 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  the  defective  speech  was 
due  to  some  perversion  of  function  in  the  kinaesthetic 
verbal  centre  {K.  V.  in  Figure  5).  The  patient  had 
full  possession  of  internal  language;  hence  one  of 
the  verbal  memory-centres  must  have  been  intact. 
It  could  not  have  been  the  kinaesthetic  centre,  for 
if  this  had  been  intact,  the  patient  would  have  had 
no  difficulty  in  oral  expression.  It  is  evident  that 
the  kinaesthetic  centre  was  damaged.      If  the  auditory 


I30       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

centre  (instead  of  the  kinaesthetic  centre)  had  been 
damaged,  the  patient  would  have  had  less  difficulty 
in  repeating  spoken  language,  for  the  cerebral  dis- 
turbance was  manifestly  of  an  incipient  nature.  With 
incipient  softening  or  a  functional  disturbance  in  the 
kinaesthetic  centre,  and  with  the  patient  an  audile, 
one  would  expect  the  very  symptoms  that  prevailed, 
—  retention  of  internal  language  and  manifestation 
of  jargon-aphasia. 

In  the  second  case  there  was  distortion  of  the  verbal 
imagery.  The  case  is  one  of  transitory  aphasia  that 
befell  the  writer  less  than  a  year  ago,  —  giving  him 
a  valuable  insight  into  the  subjective  aspect  of  aphasia. 
As  in  the  case  just  described,  the  disturbance  was  in- 
duced by  exposure  to  cold. 

The  writer  was  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  crossing 
a  pass  at  an  elevation  of  12,000  feet.  A  violent 
storm  prevailed.  There  was  heavy  rain,  and  a  freez- 
ing wind  against  which  it  was  difficult  to  stand.  The 
writer  attempted  to  communicate  with  another  mem- 
ber of  the  party,  and  found  to  his  astonishment  that 
his  language  was  completely  unintelligible.  It  was, 
in  fact,  the  meaningless  jargon  of  aphasia.  For  a 
moment  the  disturbance  was  thought  to  be  due  to 
a  benumbed  condition  of  the  articulative  organs ;  but 
this  belief  was  quickly  dispelled.  As  soon  as  the 
nature  of  the  disturbance  was  recognized,  the  writer 
undertook  an  introspective  analysis  of  the  mental 


APHASIA 


131 


condition.  The  results  would  naturally  be  more 
valuable  if  it  had  been  possible  to  anticipate  the  in- 
cident and  plan  the  analysis  beforehand.  As  it 
was,  the  introspection  was  improvised  imder  con- 
ditions of  physical  and  mental  distress  attendant 
upon  exposure  to  cold ;  and  many  valuable  points 
that  might  otherwise  have  been  examined  were  over- 
looked. Nevertheless,  the  results  are  interesting  and 
instructive. 

In  the  first  place,  there  was  no  knowledge  of  the 
aphasic  condition  till  the  attempt  was  made  to  speak. 
The  thought-processes  had  not  been  in  any  way  em- 
barrassed. The  sound  of  the  wind  and  rain  was 
clearly  interpreted,  and  all  visual  and  tactual  impres- 
sions carried  their  proper  import.  Verbal  communi- 
cations from  other  members  of  the  party  were  clearly 
understood.  In  short,  the  perceptual  and  conceptual 
processes  seemed  normal ;  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  aphasic  condition  would  have  been  noticed  if  no 
occasion  for  speech  had  arisen.  (Ihis  seems  all  the 
more  likely  since  the  aphasia  disappeared  soon  after 
a  more  protected  part  of  the  mountains  was  reached. 
This  occurred  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  after  the  disturb- 
ance was  first  noticed ;  and  as  the  thought-processes 
had  not  been  thoroughly  introspected,  the  writer  re- 
turned — with  more  zeal  than  wisdom  —  to  an  exposed 
position  in  the  pass  in  order  to  restore  the  conditions 
for  the  analysis.     The  aphasia  thereupon  returned.) 


132       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

In  regard  to  speech,  it  was  noticed  that  articu- 
lation was  somewhat  labored  and  spasmodic ;  but  there 
was  no  similitude  between  the  sounds  uttered  and 
those  appropriate  for  the  expression  of  the  thought. 
Initial  consonants,  vowels,  and  final  consonants  were 
jumbled  promiscuously,  and  more  than  half  the  words 
were  distorted  beyond  recognition.  Here  and  there 
a  word  was  intact,  and  occasionally  only  one  con- 
sonant in  a  word  would  be  mutilated.  The  writer 
could  tell  immediately  whether  or  not  the  sounds 
uttered  were  appropriate.  If  a  word  happened  to  be 
pronounced  correctly,  or  was  only  partly  distorted, 
the  fact  was  immediately  recognized. 

Introspection  showed  that  verbal  thought  was  an 
exact  counterpart  of  speech.  There  occurred  the 
same  jumble  and  confusion  in  the  verbal  imagery,  and 
it  was  impossible  to  express  a  thought  clearly  in  in- 
ternal language.  When  an  attempt  was  made  to 
translate  a  visual  thought  into  mental  words,  nothing 
resulted  but  mental  gibberish. 

As  stated,  there  was,  however,  no  discernible  im- 
pairment of  intelligence.  Even  abstract  thought 
seemed  unaffected,  and  thoughts  were  clearly  form- 
ulated in  the  mind,  although  they  could  not  be  ex- 
pressed in  mental  speech.  These  thoughts  were 
conducted  chiefly  in  visual  and  motor  imagery. 

The  visual  images  were  normal  and  could  be  redin- 
tegrated at  will.     Visual  images  of  different  scenes, 


APHASIA  133 

faces,  etc.,  were  recalled  with  normal  facility. 
Thoughts  expressed  themselves  spontaneously  in 
images  of  sight.  In  many  cases  these  visual  thoughts 
were  saved  from  obHvion  only  by  a  sudden  chopping- 
off  of  the  stream  of  consciousness.  One  thought  that 
may  be  noted  can  be  expressed  verbally  as  follows: 
^'I  wonder  if  they  have  sheltered  in  the  shaft-house." 
The  thought  referred  to  the  other  members  of  the  party. 
It  consisted  in  nothing  more  than  a  visual  image  of 
these  persons  taking  shelter  in  the  place  in  question. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  express  the  thought  in  verbal 
images,  and  then  in  spoken  words.  In  both  cases  the 
product  was  gibberish.  The  visual  images  alone 
carried  the  meaning,  and  the  verbal  images  that  they 
would  ordinarily  have  aroused  by  association  refused 
to  be  invoked.  One  point  is  worth  noting  :  When  by 
dint  of  persistent  effort  a  few  coherent  words  were  at 
last  mentally  or  orally  produced  (this  occurred  when 
the  attack  was  passing  off) ,  these  words  could  usually 
be  mentally  or  orally  repeated.  Any  considerable 
pause  annulled  the  possibility. 

Unfortunately  it  was  not  noticed  whether  visual 
images  of  words  could  be  aroused.  If  any  had  ap- 
peared spontaneously,  they  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  detected.^    No  attempt  was  made  to  read  or 

^  The  writer  can  ordinarily  arouse  faint  visual  images  of  printed 
or  written  words.  These  images  do  not  usually  accompany  his 
verbal  thought. 


134        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

write.  This  matter  was  entirely  overiooked.  No 
auditory  images  were  present  apart  from  the  auditory 
images  in  the  mental  jargon.  This  mental  jargon  — 
like  the  writer's  ordinary  verbal  imagery  —  was 
auditory-motor  with  practically  only  the  vowel-ele- 
ments in  auditory  terms.  Motor  images  of  hand- 
and  arm-movements  were  fairly  clear.  They  were, 
perhaps,  somewhat  less  definite  than  under  normal 
conditions.  They  appeared  to  be  a  little  ''labored," 
but  were  still  well  defined.  This  impression  of 
labored  kinaesthetic  images  may  have  been  produced 
by  the  numbed  condition  of  the  body. 

The  abnormal  manifestations  of  speech  gradually 
disappeared  when  the  writer  returned  to  a  more 
sheltered  part  of  the  mountains  where  he  was  pro- 
tected from  the  severity  of  the  wind.  All  marked 
disturbances  disappeared  within  half  an  hour;  but 
throughout  the  day  there  was  a  decided  tendency 
toward  syllable-stumbling.  Words  were  frequently 
misplaced  in  the  sentence.  A  severe  headache  was 
experienced  for  several  hours  after  the  incident. 

The  aphasia  was  undoubtedly  induced  by  cold. 
The  tenuity  of  the  atmosphere  could  not  alone  have 
been  responsible  for  the  disturbance,  for  at  other 
times  greater  altitudes  —  with  more  favorable  weather 
conditions  —  produced  no  such  effect. 

The  cerebral  disturbance  was  undoubtedly  some 
functional    derangement   in    the   kinaesthetic   verbal 


APHASIA  135 

centre.  This  diagnosis  was  borne  out  by  introspection. 
When  an  attempt  was  made  to  express  a  thought  in 
internal  language,  there  resulted  a  sort  of  spasm  of 
kinaesthetic  images.  The  motor  images  of  articu- 
lative  movements  had  passed  out  of  control :  they 
"exploded"  into  consciousness  instead  of  rising  in 
the  mind  in  an  orderly  manner ;  and  they  were, 
moreover,  promiscuous  and  inappropriate.  Auditory 
images  of  vowels  followed  the  kinaesthetic  images  of 
consonants,  but  since  the  consonants  were  inap- 
propriate, the  vowels  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
either  right  or  wrong. 

An  analysis  of  the  symptoms  shows  that  the  defect 
could  not  have  been  in  the  auditory  centre.  An 
affection  of  the  auditory  centre  would  not  be  likely  to 
induce  jargon-aphasia  with  the  writer,  for  the  leading 
centre  is  in  his  case  the  kinaesthetic  centre.  Whatever 
auditory  images  exist  are  aroused  by  association  with 
motor  images  of  initial  articulative  movements.  In 
this  jargon-aphasia,  however,  the  words  began  incor- 
rectly, the  articulative  movements  themselves  being 
beyond  control. 

A  comparison  of  this  case  with  the  one  preceding 
shows  again  that  disturbances  in  speech  and  thought 
vary  according  to  the  prominence  of  the  different  t}'pes 
of  imagery  in  the  thought-processes.  Dr.  Osborn's 
patient  was  not  able  to  speak,  because  he  could  not 
recall  the  necessary  kinaesthetic  images.     He  was  able 


136        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

to  think  in  words  because  he  could  recall  words  in 
auditory  terms.  The  writer  was  unable  to  speak  be- 
cause he,  too,  could  not  recall  the  kinaesthetic  images ; 
but  he  was  unable  to  think  in  words  because  —  unlike 
the  former  subject  —  he  could  not  recall  these  words 
in  auditory  terms. 

Auditory  Aphasia 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  speech-dis- 
turbances induced  by  lesion  of  the  auditory  verbal 
centre,  —  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  first  temporal 
convolution  (A.  V.  in  Figure  5).  Total  destruction 
of  this  centre  entails  obHteration  of  the  auditory 
images  of  words.  As  a  consequence  there  is,  of 
course,  complete  word-deafness,  and  the  patient 
understands  nothing  that  is  said  to  him.  If  the 
patient  is  an  audile,  there  is  Hkewise  complete 
verbal  amnesia,  and  the  patient  cannot  think  in 
words.  If  the  person  affected  should  be  a  marked 
articulo-moteur,  no  verbal  amnesia  need  result,  for 
the  words  are  still  thought  in  kinassthetic  images. 
The  patient  is  then  able  to  read,  write,  and  speak 
with  normal  facihty.  Word-deafness,  however,  in- 
variably exists. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  word-deaf  patient 
hears  quite  clearly  what  is  said  to  him,  for  even  when 
there  is  extensive  damage  to  the  memory-hemi- 
sphere of  the  brain,  the  impressions  are  still  received 


APHASIA  137 

by  the  uninjured  hemisphere.  The  words,  however, 
convey  no  meaning.  The  patient  hears  merely  a 
confusion  of  oral  sounds  that  might  as  well  be  words 
in  a  foreign  language.  If  the  injury  to  the  auditory 
centre  is  shght,  the  word-deafness  may  be  incom- 
plete, and  the  patient  understands  here  and  there  a 
word  that  is  spoken  to  him,  or  understands  a  simple 
sentence  if  it  is  several  times  repeated.  If  a  severe 
lesion  is  restricted  to  the  auditory  verbal  centre,  the 
patient  —  though  completely  word-deaf  —  readily  in- 
terprets ordinary  physical  sounds.  He  understands 
the  significance  of  a  knock  at  the  door,  the  ringing 
of  a  bell,  the  ticking  of  a  clock,  etc.,  and  he  recognizes 
and  appreciates  music. 

As  already  stated,  the  severity  of  the  disturbance 
in  verbal  thought  and  speech  is  dependent  upon  the 
degree  of  prominence  of  the  auditory  verbal  imagery 
under  normal  conditions.  The  symptoms  in  dififerent 
cases  are  by  no  means  uniform.  There  may  be 
complete  verbal  amnesia  or  no  amnesia  whatever. 
The  disturbance  in  speech  is,  of  course,  commensurate 
with  the  disturbance  in  internal  language,  —  for  the 
patient  cannot  speak  words  that  he  is  unable  to  think. 
There  may  be  some  amount  of  paraphasia  due  to 
"uncontrolled"  activity  of  the  kinaesthetic  memory- 
centre.  The  speech  is  paraphasic  because  there  is 
no  auditory  imagery  to  guide  it.  This  symptom  is 
more  likely  to  prevail  in  ear-minded  persons. 


138        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

The  following  is  a  case  of  auditory  aphasia  due  to 
destruction  of  the  auditory  verbal  memory-centre :  ^ 

"A  woman,  aged  43  years,  who  had  never  suffered  from 
deafness  or  affection  of  vision,  was  attacked  on  June  22,  1880, 
with  right  hemiplegia  and  aphasia.  She  remained  in  the  hos- 
pital until  August  4,  when  she  was  discharged.  At  this  time 
the  patient  could  speak,  but  she  spoke  unintelligibly,  and  was 
sometimes  believed  to  be  intoxicated.  She  not  only  could  not 
make  herself  understood,  but  she  could  not  understand  what 
was  said  to  her. 

"She  was  received  into  the  hospital  again  on  September  10, 
with  slight  paresis  of  the  left  arm.  The  right  hemiplegia  had 
entirely  disappeared.  The  patient  was  looked  upon  as  insane. 
She  was  absolutely  deaf,  so  that  she  could  not  be  communicated 
with." 

At  the  autopsy  a  lesion  was  found  in  the  auditory 
verbal  memory-centre.  The  lesion  encroached  upon 
the  second  and  third  temporal  convolutions.  There 
was  a  somewhat  similar  lesion  in  the  right  hemisphere, 
but  this  would  not  have  affected  the  verbal  memory.  — ■ 
The  patient  was  able  to  give  utterance  to  oral  sounds 
because  the  kinaesthetic  memory  persisted.  The 
speech  was  defective  because  there  was  no  auditory 
imagery  to  guide  it,  and  because  the  patient  was  de- 
pendent upon  auditory  cues. 

In  the  following  case  (reported  by  Pick  ^)  it  will  be 

iBastian,  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  pp.  161  f. 
Quoted  by  Bastian  from  Farrier,  "Lectures  on  Cerebral  Localization." 

^  Archiv  fur  Psychologie,  1892,  p.  909.  Quoted  by  Bastian, 
"  Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  166. 


APHASIA  139 

seen  that  the  patient  was  an  articulo-moteur,  and  that 
there  was  no  verbal  amnesia  or  defective  speech  despite 
the  fact  that  the  auditory  memory-centre  was  totally 
destroyed : 

"A  day  laborer,  aged  24,  was  completely  word-deaf,  and 
behaved  like  a  deaf  person,  taking  no  notice  of  ordinary  sounds 
near  him.  It  was  found  that  he  only  noticed  loud  calls,  clap- 
ping, or  ringing  of  bells,  and  this  not  always  readily.  Yet  if 
one  shouted  to  him  unexpectedly,  he  said,  angrily,  'Don't 
shout  at  me  so ' ;  and  he  often  said  spontaneously,  *  I  hear  quite 
weU,  but  I  don't  understand ;  I  can  hear  a  fly  flying  past  me.' 
His  power  of  recognizing  airs  previously  known  to  him  seemed 
to  be  also  lost. 

"His  speech  was  perfectly  correct.  He  spoke  fluently,  and 
only  occasionally  hesitated  about  the  right  word.  He  named 
objects  shown  to  him  correctly.  He  could  not  repeat  words 
or  phrases.  Writing  was  executed  slowly  but  quite  correctly, 
though  he  could  not  write  from  dictation.  With  regard  to  his 
power  of  copying,  nothing  could  be  stated,  as  he  could  not  be 
persuaded  to  make  the  attempt.  He  read  aloud  easily  and 
quite  correctly,  and  he  understood  both  print  and  writing 
perfectly.  Writing  afforded  the  only  means  of  communicat- 
ii;g  with  him  apart  from  gestures.  The  patient's  condition 
in  the  above-mentioned  respects  remained  essentially  unchanged 
during  the  whole  period  of  his  stay  in  the  hospital,  from  January 
17  to  May  12,  1891. 

"At  the  necropsy  the  upper  parts  of  both  temporal  lobes 
were  found  to  be  shrunken,  soft,  and  of  a  yellow  color.  On 
the  left  side  the  posterior  half  of  the  upper  temporal  convolu- 
tion and  the  supra-marginal  gyrus  were  the  parts  that  were 
softened.  The  island  of  Reil  was  intact.  On  the  right  side 
there  was  softening  of  the  upper  temporal  convolution  and  a 


I40       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

great  part  of  the  second  temporal,  as  well  as  of  the  island  of  Reil, 
together  with  some  small  foci  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ascend- 
ing frontal  [precentral],  and  in  the  third  frontal  convolution." 

Since  the  auditory  verbal  memory-centre  was  de- 
stroyed, the  only  reasonable  explanation  for  the  ab- 
sence of  amnesia  and  speech-disturbances  is  that  the 
man  was  an  articulo-moteur,  and  that  verbal  images 
subsisted  normally  in  kinaesthetic  terms.  Like  other 
people  that  have  no  auditory  imagery,  he  would, 
before  his  illness,  recognize  sounds  when  he  heard 
them,  but  he  would  be  unable  to  revive  them  as 
acoustic  images  in  his  mind.  This  absence  of  acoustic 
images  accounts  for  the  absence  of  speech-disturbances 
and  amnesia  when  the  auditory  centre  was  destroyed. 
The  patient  suffered  no  more  in  speech  than  would 
a  congenitally  deaf  person  that  had  mastered  oral 
language.^ 

1  The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  this  patient  spoke,  like  an 
orally  taught  deaf  person,  from  visual  as  well  as  from  kinaesthetic 
cues.  This  is  highly  improbable.  One  that  has  made  no  study  of 
visual  speech  has  practically  no  optical  images  of  the  different  posi- 
tions and  movements  of  his  articulative  organs.  Let  the  reader 
verify  this  statement  by  endeavoring  to  obtain  visual  images  of  the 
different  movements  that  his  speech-organs  would  execute  in  pro- 
ducing the  sentences  he  is  at  present  reading.  If  he  has  not  made 
a  study  of  visual  speech,  he  will  find  these  images  to  be  rudimentary 
to  the  last  degree.  He  probably  cannot  tell,  without  an  actual  trial, 
whether  in  the  enunciation  of  the  letter  F,  the  upper  teeth  touch 
the  lower  lip,  or  the  lower  teeth  touch  the  upper  lip.  If  visual 
images  of  speech  exist,  they  will  be  confined  almost  exclusively  to 
images  of  labial  action.     Physiologists  have  spent  years  of  pains- 


APHASIA  141 

Instances  are  not  at  all  rare  of  patients  giving 
utterance  to  familiar  phrases  after  they  have  suffered 
destruction  of  the  auditory  memory-centre.  The 
phenomenon  shows  what  an  important  part  the  kin- 
aesthetic  memory  plays  in  the  evocation  of  speech,  — 
and,  with  some  people,  in  the  thought-processes. 
The  following  case,  somewhat  similar  to  the  one 
preceding,  came  under  the  observation  of  Hitzig. 
The  report  is  taken  from  Bastian.^ 

"An  old  lady,  supposed  to  be  suffering  from  softening  of  the 
brain,  was  at  a  loss  in  speaking  for  a  certain  number  of  words, 
whilst  she  was  also  very  slightly  paraphasia.  Nevertheless, 
she  was  able  to  express  herself  so  well  that  at  a  first  examina- 
tion no  speech  trouble  might  be  noticed. 

"She  was  completely  unable  to  understand  what  was  said 
to  her.     But  after  a  time,  when  her  condition  had  somewhat 

taking  work  to  ascertain  the  action  of  the  less  observable  organs  of 
speech.  All  this  work  would  have  been  superfluous  if  they  could 
have  visualized  these  actions  from  the  beginning.  It  can  be  safely 
stated  that  the  average  person  has  visual  images  of  the  action  of  his 
speech-organs  no  more  than  he  has  visual  images  of  the  movements 
of  his  diaphragm. 

If  this  laborer  had  visual  images  of  speech-movements,  he  should 
have  been  a  competent  lip-reader  and  should  have  had  no  difl&culty 
in  interpreting  spoken  language. 

Visual  images  of  printed  or  written  words  need  not  be  considered. 
They  cannot  incite  speech  :  they  arouse  the  speech-images  only  by 
association.  The  only  images  that  they  could  arouse  in  this  instance 
would  be  kinaesthetic. 

It  seems  clear,  then,  that  in  this  case  the  incitatives  of  speech 
were  kinaesthetic  images  of  articulative  movements. 

1  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  329  f. 


142        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

improved,  Hitzig  says,  '  She  took  notice  when  one  pronounced 
certain  words,  though  I  beUeve  she  did  not  understand  them, 
but  that  she  recognized  rather  by  analogy  the  sound  of  what 
was  uttered,  looking  to  her  previous  experiences.' 

"She  had,  however,  very  completely  preserved  her  com- 
prehension of  music ;  she  appreciated  airs  that  were  simg  or 
whistled ;  and  she  herself  sang  and  reproduced  airs,  though  not 
always  very  correctly. 

"After  a  time  she  showed  symptoms  which  pointed  to  the 
existence  of  a  new  focus  of  softening  —  this  time  in  the  right 
hemisphere. 

"At  the  necropsy  an  area  of  softening  was  found  in  the  left 
hemisphere,  occupying  principally  the  temporal  lobe  and  more 
especially  the  posterior  two-thirds  of  the  first  temporal  convolu- 
tion. This  old  softening  was  probably  the  cause  of  her  word- 
deafness.  In  the  right  hemisphere  there  was  a  symmetrical 
focus  of  recent  date  in  the  temporal  lobe."  ^ 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  nature  of  the  lesions  that 
the  auditory  images  of  words  must  have  been  destroyed; 
yet  the  patient  gave  utterance  to  complete  sentences. 
As  a  rule,  intelligent  speech  is  inhibited  by  a  lesion 
in  the  auditory  verbal  centre,  and  it  is  only  in  rarer 
instances  that  the  patient  gives  expression  to  several 
words  in  rational  sequence. 

^  A  somewhat  similar  case  is  reported  by  Wernicke  in  "Der 
Aphasische  Symptomencomplex."  This  is  quoted  by  Ballet,  "Le 
langage  interieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  p.  86;  and  by  Wyllie,  "Dis- 
orders of  Speech,"  p.  285. 


APHASIA  143 

The  Relation  between  Motor  and  Auditory 

Aphasia 

It  might  be  profitable  to  consider  at  this  juncture 
the  points  of  similarity  and  difference  between  motor 
and  auditory  aphasia.  These  points  may  best  be 
studied  under  three  headings:  the  reception  and 
interpretation  of  speech;  the  retention  of  the 
verbal  images  in  memory;  and  the  expression  of 
oral  speech. 

The  Reception  and  Interpretation  of  Speech.  —  In 
auditory  aphasia,  the  word-deafness  is  always  com- 
mensurate to  the  amount  of  damage  in  the  auditory 
verbal  centre.  When  destruction  of  the  centre  is 
complete,  the  word-deafness  is  complete.  If  only  part 
of  the  centre  is  destroyed,  or  if  the  whole  centre  is 
enfeebled  rather  than  annihilated,  the  patient  may 
interpret  an  occasional  word  that  he  hears,  or  may 
grasp  the  meaning  of  a  whole  phrase  if  it  is  several 
times  repeated  to  him.  If  the  patient  happened  to 
be  an  orally  taught  deaf  person,  it  is  evident  that  a 
lesion  in  the  first  temporal  convolution  would  have 
no  injurious  effect  upon  speech ;  the  integrity  of  this 
centre  would  not  be  necessary,  since  the  patient 
would  interpret  speech  entirely  by  vision. 

It  seems  at  first  sight  that  there  should  be  no  word- 
deafness  with  pure  motor  aphasia,  since  the  auditory 
word-images    are    not    affected.     No    word-deafness 


144       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

occurs  with  the  audile,  but  the  articulo-moteur  may 
have  difficulty  in  interpreting  spoken  language. 
However,  he  gathers  the  meaning  when  the  words  are 
slowly  and  clearly  uttered,  or  he  understands  them 
when  they  are  repeated.  When  the  auditory  centre 
is  destroyed,  the  word-deafness  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
complete. 

The  Retention  of  the  Verbal  Images  in  Memory.  — 
The  amount  of  amnesia  that  exists  with  a  lesion  in 
the  auditory  or  kinaesthetic  memory-centre  varies 
with  the  prominence  of  the  different  types  of  imagery 
in  verbal  thought.  The  audile  has  his  internal  lan- 
guage annihilated  if  an  injury  occurs  to  the  auditory 
verbal  centre.  On  the  other  hand,  the  articulo- 
moteur  or  the  orally  taught  deaf  person  finds  that  his 
internal  speech  is  practically  unaffected  by  such  a 
lesion.  When  an  injury  occurs  to  Broca's  centre, 
it  is  the  articulo-moteur  that  suffers :  his  verbal 
memory  is  expunged.  The  pure  audile  —  Guide 
Banti's  patient  is  an  example  ^  —  thinks  in  words  as 
freely  as  ever. 

The  audito-moteur  suffers  when  either  centre  is 
affected,  the  degree  of  the  amnesia  varying,  of  course, 
with  the  individual.  Wyllie  believes  that  verbal 
amnesia  is  common  with  motor  aphasia.     He  says : 

"There  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  every  case  of  severe  motor 
aphasia  that  is  due  to  destruction  of  the  motor  images,  Amnesia 

^  See  p.  126. 


APHASIA  145 

Verbalis  is  extremely  well  marked,  —  even  more  so,  perhaps, 
than  it  is  in  severe  cases  of  auditory  aphasia."  ^ 

Collins  expresses  a  similar  opinion : 

"Patients  with  cortical  motor  aphasia  often  show  great 
amnesia  and  lack  of  comprehensive  grasp  of  facts  that  have 
been  commmiicated  to  them  since  their  illness."  ^ 

The  Expression  of  Oral  Speech.  —  The  impairment 
of  oral  speech  is  proportional  to  the  amount  of  kinaes- 
thetic  amnesia  that  exists.  If  destruction  of  Broca's 
centre  is  complete,  the  patient  becomes  mute  even 
though  he  may  think  clearly  in  auditory  images  of 
words.  Frequently  a  few  of  the  brain-cells  seem  to 
escape  damage,  and  the  patient  gives  expression  to 
such  recurring  utterances  as  "tan- tan,"  "list  com- 
plete," etc.  When  the  impairment  of  the  kinaesthetic 
centre  is  functional  rather  than  organic,  or  when  the 
lesion  is  slight,  the  patient  may  exhibit  a  considerable 
degree  of  jargon-aphasia  or  paraphasia.  He  gives 
utterance  to  meaningless  syllables  when  he  attempts 
to  speak,  or  uses  words  that  are  entirely  inappropriate. 

When  the  auditory  area  is  affected,  the  patient's 
ability  to  speak  is  proportional  to  his  ability  to  sum- 
mon the  kinaesthetic  images  of  words  independent  of 
his  images  of  hearing.^    With  Pick's  patient  we  see 

^  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  p.  312. 

2  "The  Faculty  of  Speech,"  p.  173. 

3  On  this  subject  Starr  writes  as  follows  :  "If,  in  the  patient  with 
word-deafness,  there  is  no  accompanying  word-blindness,  he  may 


146       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

that  there  was  full  ability  to  recall  these  images  of 
feehng.^  With  the  audile,  no  such  ability  would  be 
likely  to  exist,  and  the  patient  would  be  unable  to 
give  utterance  to  intelHgible  speech.  At  best  there 
would  be  paraphasia  and  jargon-aphasia,  due  to  the 
uncontrolled  activity  of  the  kinaesthetic  centre.  With 
a  partial  disablement  of  the  auditory  centre,  para- 
phasia is  Ukely  to  result.  The  degree  of  jargon- 
aphasia  is  determined  largely  by  the  severity  of  the 
lesion. 

When  the  auditory  area  is  enfeebled  rather  than 
destroyed,  the  patient  can  usually  repeat  words  that 
he  hears  spoken.  This  matter  will  be  discussed  sub- 
sequently at  greater  length. 

The  cases  of  aphasia  cited  in  the  preceding  pages 
are  typical  of  disturbances  that  occur  with  degenera- 
tion in  strictly  delimited  cortical  areas.  It  frequently 
happens,  however,  that  a  lesion  covers  only  part  of  a 

be  able  to  read  aloud  as  well  as  to  himself  —  that  is,  his  motor  speech 
memory  may  be  aroused  by  way  of  his  visual  memories  without  the 
intervention  of  the  auditory  memories.  And  if  he  has  no  apraxia 
[loss  of  concepts]  it  is  also  possible  for  any  of  the  concept  memories 
to  awaken  the  motor  speech  memory;  hence  the  thought  of  an 
object  or  seeing  it  may  lead  to  the  enunciation  of  its  name  without 
thought  of  how  the  name  sounds.  For  this  reason  patients  who 
are  word-deaf  and  cannot  understand  what  is  said  to  them  may  be 
able  to  talk  fairly  well."  ("Organic  and  Functional  Nervous  Dis- 
eases," 2d  ed.,  pp.  456-457.) 
1  pp.  139  f- 


APHASIA  147 

particular  centre.  The  function  is  then  only  partially 
inhibited.  In  other  cases  the  lesion  falls  along  the 
borders  of  two  adjoining  centres.  It  then  happens 
that  there  is  impairment  of  both  faculties,  but  sub- 
version of  neither.  In  other  cases,  again,  the  lesion 
may  be  more  extensive  and  may  affect  two  or  three 
centres  simultaneously.  Several  subjective  disturb- 
ances, such  as  auditory  and  visual  amnesia  or  word- 
deafness  and  mind-blindness,  then  coexist,  and  the 
patient's  intelligence  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

ASSOCIATIONAL  ApHASIA 

Lesions  producing  aphasia  are  not  necessarily 
situated  in  the  cerebral  cortex;  they  are  frequently 
found  in  the  association-tracts  uniting  the  different 
centres  of  the  brain.  As  already  stated  (p.  115),  a 
lesion  severing  the  fibres  between  the  primary  visual 
centre  and  the  visual  verbal  memory-centre  will 
produce  word-blindness  without  agraphia.  The  pa- 
tient cannot  read  because  the  visual  impressions 
do  not  arouse  their  associated  memory-images. 
These  memory-images  can,  however,  be  aroused  spon- 
taneously, and  they  are  at  the  service  of  the  patient 
when  he  desires  to  write.  He  writes  spontaneously  or 
from  dictation,  but  he  cannot  read  what  he  has  him- 
self written. 

It  has  already  been  explained  that  in  such  cases  the 
patient  sometimes  manages  to  read  in  a  rather  crippkd 


148       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

way  by  tracing  the  letters  with  a  pen  or  with  his 
finger.  In  these  cases  the  kinaesthetic  sensations 
arouse  the  visual  images  of  the  words,  and  the  process 
is  exactly  the  reverse  of  that  which  takes  place  during 
the  act  of  writing. 

All  ideas  that  are  associated  by  contiguity  can  thus 
arouse  one  another  mutually.  The  association,  as 
already  stated,  is  stronger  in  the  direction  represent- 
ing the  order  of  the  occurrence  of  the  impressions ; 
but  it  exists  in  the  other  direction  none  the  less. 
Pathological  phenomena  show  that  the  association- 
fibres  conducting  stimuli  from  one  centre  to  another 
are  not  the  same  as  the  fibres  conducting  stimuli  in 
the  reverse  direction ;  in  other  words,  the  association- 
tracts  are  double.  Since  contiguous  association  can 
take  place  between  any  two  ideas,  one  naturally  con- 
cludes that  there  must  be  double  association-tracts 
between  any  two  brain-centres  that  may  be  designated. 

A  peculiar  condition,  known  as  optic  aphasia,  is 
produced  by  interruption  of  the  fibres  that  convey 
stimuli  from  the  visual  memory-centre  to  the  verbal 
memory-centres.  There  is  no  object-blindness-  The 
patient  recognizes  objects  with  facility:  but  the 
stimulus  cannot  pass  to  the  verbal  memory-centres; 
hence  the  patient  is  unable  to  recall  the  names  of 
objects  that  he  sees.  When  the  object  is  made  to 
appeal  to  another  sense  —  touch,  hearing,  or  taste, 
for  instance  —  the  patient  is  able  to  name  it  immedi- 


APHASIA  149 

ately.  He  might,  of  course,  do  the  same  thing  if  he 
suffered  from  pure  object-bKndness ;  but  since  there 
is  no  object-bHndness  present  and  no  amnesia  (for 
the  name  can  be  aroused  through  other  channels),  it 
follows  that  the  difficulty  is  merely  one  of  association. 

If  the  lesion  happened  to  occur  in  the  set  of  fibres 
that  convey  stimuh  from  the  auditory  word-centre 
to  the  visual  memory-centre,  there  would  result  —  in 
the  eye-minded  person,  at  least  —  a  marked  degree  of 
word-deafness.  The  subject  would  hear  the  words, 
but  the  words  would  not  arouse  their  visual  associates ; 
hence  in  many  instances  they  would  not  be  under- 
stood. The  condition  would  differ  little  from  word- 
deafness  produced  by  degeneration  of  the  auditory 
centre.  There  would,  however,  be  less  disturbance 
in  physical  speech. 

Theoretically  there  are  as  many  different  assoda- 
tional  disturbances  as  there  are  association-tracts  in 
the  cerebrum.  Many  pathological  cases  have  been 
recorded  that  bear  out  the  different  classifications. 
But  most  of  these  cases  show  complications  due  to  the 
encroachment  of  the  lesions  upon  other  parts  of  the 
cerebrum,  and  in  many  instances,  too,  no  autopsical 
examination  has  been  recorded;  hence  it  would  not 
be  profitable  to  consider  these  cases  at  length.  The 
characteristic  symptoms  of  any  particular  case  should 
be  obvious  from  what  has  already  been  said  concern- 
ing association  and  the  nature  of  aphasia. 


I50       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

A  few  remarks,  however,  may  be  made  concerning 
the  defects  of  speech  that  result  from  a  breach  in  the 
fibres  miiting  the  auditory  and  kinaesthetic  word- 
centres.  These  fibres  cross  the  Sylvian  fissure, 
passing  beneath  the  island  of  Reil.  Undoubtedly 
they  are  double,  but  owing  to  their  propinquity  they 
are  not  Hkely  to  be  separately  damaged.  The  nature 
of  the  disturbances  attendant  upon  damage  to  these 
fibres  is  determined  by  the  relative  prominence  of 
the  two  centres  in  the  verbal  processes.  A  pure 
articulo-moteur  would  suffer  no  disturbance  in  oral 
expression.  Speech  would  be  initiated  from  Broca's 
centre,  and  the  isolation  of  this  centre  from  the  audi- 
tory region  would  have  Kttle  significance.  The  audito- 
moteur  or  audile  (the  audile,  of  course,  becoming  an 
audito-moteur  where  oral  expression  is  concerned) 
exhibits  jargon-aphasia  or  paraphasia  from  a  similar 
lesion.  There  is  usually  no  word-deafness,  or  no  more 
word-deafness  than  would  result  from  destruction  of  the 
kinaesthetic  centre.  Internal  language  is  not  impaired 
in  the  pure  audile  or  pure  articulo-moteur,  though 
naturally  it  becomes  affected  in  the  audito-moteur  if  he 
is  not  able,  after  the  occurrence  of  the  lesion,  to  restrict 
his  verbal  thought  to  one  particular  type  of  imagery. 

The  following  is  a  case  of  paraphasia  due  to  inter- 
ruption of  the  audito-kinaesthetic  association-tract :  ^ 

*  Collins,  "The  Faculty  of  Speech,"  p.  418,  The  case  was  orig- 
inally reported  by  Lichtheim. 


APHASIA  151 

"A  man,  forty-six  years  old,  with  incomplete  right-side 
hemiplegia.  No  history  could  be  obtained.  Examination 
showed  that  the  patient  understood  spoken,  written,  and 
printed  speech.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  case  was 
paraphasia,  which  was  so  great  that  spoken  speech  was  quite 
unintelligible.  He  was  aware  of  the  mistakes  in  his  production 
and  tried  to  assist  himself  by  pantomime.  Writing  was  very 
imperfect ;  he  disarranged  the  order  of  the  letters  and  the  words, 
and  it  was  difficult  to  get  him  to  make  efforts  of  writing.  The 
same  defect  was  manifested  in  attempting  to  repeat  as  when  he 
endeavored  to  speak  voluntarily.  He  retained  the  ability  to 
copy.  The  autopsy  showed  extensive  lesions,  the  chief  one, 
according  to  the  writer,  being  of  the  island  and  of  the  floor  of 
the  Sylvian  fissure." 

The  symptoms  vary  greatly  in  different  cases ; 
hence  the  foregoing  case  cannot  be  said  to  be  typical. 
The  paragraphia  indicates  impairment  of  internal 
language  or  the  existence  of  complications  affecting 
the  visual  area  or  fibres  connected  with  it. 

When  damage  occurs  to  the  projection-fibres  lead- 
ing from  the  motor  areas  of  the  brain,  the  resultant 
disturbance  is  aphemia.  The  symptoms  are  identical 
with  those  produced  by  a  lesion  in  the  motor  cortex. 
Internal  language  is,  of  course,  unaffected. 

Amusia 

Amusia  is  a  generic  term  for  disturbances  in  the 
musical  faculty.  These  defects  are  quite  analogous 
to  the  various  forms  of  aphasia.     We  find  tone-deaf- 


152       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   STAMMERING 

ness,  note-blindness,  musical  amnesia,  etc.,  analogous 
to  the  different  defects  in  speech.  Defects  in  the 
musical  and  speech  faculties  may  coexist  or  exist 
independently  of  each  other. 

The  independent  occurrence  of  disturbances  in  the 
musical  faculty  points  to  the  existence  of  a  separate 
centre  presiding  over  the  musical  memory.  The 
facts  of  development  carry  similar  import. 

"Musical  recognition  in  childhood  often  precedes  verbal 
recognition.^  Musical  expression  usually  precedes  verbal  ex- 
pression, both  when  there  is  clearly  inherited  musical  tendency, 
and  in  ordinary  imitative  reactions."  ^ 

The  disparity  in  the  development  of  the  musical 
and  speech  faculties  is  often  remarkable.  Ballet 
states  ^  that  Stumpf 's  child  could  sing  the  scale 
correctly  at  the  age  of  fourteen  months.  He  cites 
further  the  case  of  the  son  of  the  composer,  Dvorak, 
who  at  one  year  could  sing  with  his  nurse  the  march 
from  "Fatinitza."  At  eighteen  months  he  could  sing 
his  father's  songs,  the  latter  accompanying  him  on  the 
piano.  The  faculties  of  speech  and  song  frequently 
interfere  with  each  other's  development.  The  writer 
has  a  nephew  that  developed  a  remarkable  propen- 
sity for  singing  at  the  age  of  two.     When  less  than 

^  Verbal  recognition  of  course  requires  the  establishment  of  asso- 
ciations.  —  C.  S.  B. 

2  Baldwin,  "Mental  Development  of  the  Child  and  Race,"  p. 
440. 

'  "Le  langage  int^rieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  p.  24. 


APHASIA  153 

two  and  a  half,  he  could  sing  accurately  the  melody 
of  " La  donna  e  mobile,"  from  ''  Rigoletto."  But  when 
the  musical  faculty  began  to  develop,  all  attempts  at 
speech  seemed  to  disappear.  At  the  age  of  three  the 
child  began  to  employ  words  again,  but  he  had  then 
no  more  command  of  language  than  he  had  at  eighteen 
months. 

This  independent  development  of  the  faculties 
would  scarcely  take  place  if  the  musical  and  auditory 
verbal  memories  were  subserved  by  the  same  centre. 
Physiologists  are  pretty  well  agreed  that  the  auditory 
musical  memory  resides  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
first  temporal  convolution.  The  posterior  two-thirds, 
it  will  be  remembered,  presides  over  the  auditory 
memory  for  spoken  words.  When  the  whole  superior 
temporal  convolution  is  damaged,  there  result  both 
amusia  and  aphasia.  When  the  lesion  is  limited  to 
the  anterior  portion,  there  occurs  amusia  without 
aphasia.  When  the  damage  is  restricted  to  the 
posterior  portion,  aphasia  alone  results. 

The  visual  memory  for  musical  notations  seems  to 
reside  in  a  different  portion  of  the  cortex  from  that 
presiding  over  the  memory  for  ordinary  letters.  The 
visual  images  pertaining  to  music  are  probably  stored 
in  the  general  visual  centre. 

Tone-deafness  is  usually  accompanied  by  musical 
amnesia.  Lack  of  musical  imagery  is  normal  with 
a  large  proportion  of  the  race.     A  certain  amount  of 


154       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

natural  tone-deafness  is  likewise  common,  a  great 
many  people  being  unable  to  appreciate  intricate 
classical  music.  Pathological  tone-deafness  results, 
of  course,  from  actual  degeneration  in  the  cerebrum, 
and  it  is  often  accompanied  by  word-deafness.  Collins  ^ 
cites  a  case,  originally  reported  by  Serieux,  in  which 
there  was  total  word-deafness.  In  addition,  ''The 
most  famihar  times  when  played  on  any  instrument 
were  not  recognized.  'Au  Claire  de  la  Lune,'  was 
said  to  be  a  'dead  march.'  Cafe  chantant  music 
was  designated  church  music,  etc." 

"Lichtheim  has  reported  a  very  instructive  example  of 
amusia.  His  patient  was  a  teacher  and  journalist,  who  be- 
came completely  word-deaf  after  a  second  attack  of  apoplexy. 
Communication  with  the  patient  could  be  made  only  in  writing. 
He  heard  when  one  sang  or  whistled,  but  he  did  not  recognize 
the  melodies.  Concert  singing  by  his  children  was  most  annoy- 
ing because  it  was  'so  noisy.'  The  most  familiar  melodies, 
such  as  'Rufst  du  mein  Vaterland,'  were  not  recognized."  ^ 

Dr.  Brazier  cites  a  number  of  interesting  cases  of 
amusia.^  In  one  case  a  tenor  in  the  comic  opera  was 
suddenly  stricken  with  musical  amnesia  during  the 
performance.  He  was  unable  to  understand  what 
was  being  sung,  and  was  himself  unable  to  produce 

1  Collins,  "The  Faculty  of  Speech,"  p.  260. 

2  Collins,  loc.  cit.,  p.  260. 

'"Du  trouble  des  facult6s  musicales  dans  I'aphasie,"  Revue 
philosophique,  October,  1892,  pp.  337-368.  Reviewed  in  Zeitschrift 
fur  Psychologie  und  Physiologic  der  Sinnesorgane,  Vol.  5,  pp.  345  ff- 


APHASIA  155 

a  note.  He  could  speak  with  fair  fluency,  but  had 
forgotten  the  words  and  music  of  his  songs  entirely. 
The  disturbance  disappeared  after  several  months. 
In  another  case  a  well-known  pianist  was  playing  a 
piece  from  memory,  with  orchestral  accompaniment. 
Suddenly  he  forgot  the  piece,  and  the  music  of  the 
orchestra  appeared  to  him  as  a  mere  confusion  of 
sounds.  There  was  no  trace  of  aphasia.  It  is  evident 
that  the  disturbances  in  musical  expression  were  due 
in  these  two  cases  to  the  loss  of  auditory  musical 
memory. 

The  musical  memory  is  not  necessarily  auditory, 
though  of  course  it  usually  takes  this  form.  For 
instrumental  music,  the  memory  may  be  visual  or 
motor.  The  visile  may  learn  a  piece  of  music  by 
visualizing  the  notes,  and  he  would  naturally  depend 
upon  his  images  of  sight.  The  motile  can  learn  to 
play  pieces  from  memory,  even  if  he  has  no  acoustic 
imagery.  Any  disturbance  in  his  kinaesthetic  imagery 
of  hand-movements  would  then  interfere  with  musical 
expression.  It  will  be  remembered  that  one  of  Char- 
cot's patients  had  lost  the  memory  for  associated 
movements  of  the  hands  and  mouth  necessary  for 
playing  the  trombone.  In  such  cases  musical  ex- 
pression would  be  impaired  even  if  the  auditory 
memory  were  unaffected. 

Conditions  of  note-bhndness  (called  also  musical 
alexia)    and    musical    agraphia    occasionally    occur. 


156       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

When  the  damage  causing  the  disturbance  is  Kmited 
to  the  visual  area,  the  patient  may  still  play  well  by 
ear.  Kussmaul  ^  refers  to  a  patient  of  Finkeln- 
burg's  that  could  play  well  by  ear,  though  he  had 
lost  the  power  of  interpreting  written  music.  A 
patient  of  Lasegue's  ^  that  suffered  from  aphasia  and 
agraphia  was  able  to  write  the  notes  to  any  melody 
he  heard.  A  patient  of  Proust's  ^  could  compose  and 
write  music,  but  was  totally  unable  to  play  from  notes. 
This  disturbance  was  probably  produced  by  a  lesion 
in  the  fibres  uniting  the  primary  and  secondary  visual 
centres.  Such  a  lesion  would  account  for  the  absence 
of  musical  agraphia,  since  the  visual  memory-centre 
would  be  unimpaired. 

The  Ability  of  an  Aphasic  Patient  to  Sing 

Returning  to  the  subject  of  vocal  music,  we  find 
that  the  patient  is  usually  unable  to  sing  when  he  is 
imable  to  speak.  However,  he  may  still  be  able  to 
hum  or  whistle  airs  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  or 
he  may  sing  by  attaching  musical  sounds  to  a  few 
meaningless  syllables  that  he  is  still  able  to  articulate. 
But  it  occasionally  happens  that  an  aphasic  patient 
can  sing  words  that  he  cannot  express  in  ordinary 
speech.  In  such  cases  the  defect  of  speech  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  auditory  amnesia,  the  kinassthetic 
word-images  being  unimpaired.     A  case  of  this  nature 

^  See  Kussmaul,  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  193. 


APHASIA  157 

is  recorded  by  a  writer  in  the  Psychological  Review} 

He  says : 

"A  patient  now  under  his  observation  [the  author  writes 
in  the  third  person]  with  total  loss  of  the  power  of  speaking, 
the  understanding  of  speech  being  preserved,  is  being  success- 
fully taught  to  sing  in  a  high  pitch  words  which  he  cannot  be 
taught  to  say." 

Bastian  quotes  a  case  from  Knoblauch,  in  which 
the  patient  could  sing  words  that  she  could  not 
pronounce :  ^ 

''The  patient  was  a  girl,  aged  six  years,  who  could  neither 
read  nor  write.  After  recovering  from  an  attack  of  scarlet 
fever  followed  by  nephritis,  she  was  seized  with  general  convul- 
sions on  December  21,  1886. 

"'On  December  26  consciousness  slowly  returned,  but  there 
remained  a  condition  of  right  hemiplegia  with  aphasia.  The 
child  could  not  speak  at  all  at  first.  Later  on  she  said 
"  Mamma,"  and  apparently  repeated  a  few  words.  She  could 
sing  the  song  "Weisst  Du  wie  viel  Sternlein  stehen,"  etc.,  but 
she  could  not  recite  the  text  of  the  song,  or  speak  voluntarily 
single  words  of  the  same.' 

"Soon  after  she  improved  in  general  health,  but  on  February 
8,  1887,  she  was  admitted  into  the  CHnical  Hospital  at  Heidel- 
berg on  account  of  the  hemiplegia  and  the  speech  defects.  In 
regard  to  the  latter  the  following  details  are  given :  '  Men- 
tally, as  far  as  one  can  judge,  she  is  very  well  developed.  As 
she  is  aphasic  she  has  to  make  herself  understood  by  gestures ; 
spontaneously  she  only  utters  "Mamma."  She  is  able  to  repeat 
a  few  words,  but  very  imperfectly.     If  one  commences  the  song 

1  Vol.  I,  No.  I,  January,  1894. 

'Bastian,  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  288. 


158        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"Weisst  Du  wie  viel  Sternlein  stehen,"  she  sings  it  with  the 
right  melody  in  an  automatic  way,  being  unable  either  to  con- 
tinue or  to  begin  afresh  when  she  once  stops.  All  the  words  of 
the  text  which  she  is  unable  to  pronounce  spontaneously  are, 
while  she  sings  them,  articulated  perfectly.  The  comprehen- 
sion of  spoken  language  is  quite  normal.  The  patient  has  not 
yet  learnt  to  read  or  wTite.' 

"After  this  date  she  improved  remarkably  under  treatment, 
so  that  by  February  21  'she  was  able  to  repeat  most  words  cor- 
rectly, with  considerable  trouble  it  is  true.  She  could  count 
up  to  three  if  some  one  started  her  with  ''one."  In  the  begin- 
ning of  March  she  was  able  to  sing  the  song  "Weisst  Du  wie 
viel  Sternlein  stehen"  quite  alone,  and  certainly  with  a  much 
purer  intonation  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  treatment.  On 
March  8,  she  succeeded  for  the  first  time  in  reciting  the  text 
of  the  song  without  singing  the  melody.  In  the  beginning  of 
April  the  patient  had  acquired  a  considerable  vocabulary,  and 
she  even  attempted  to  form  small  sentences.  In  the  middle  of 
the  same  month  she  could  utter  almost  all  words,  but  could  not 
yet  form  connected  sentences,  though  she  managed  to  make 
herself  perfectly  understood.'" 

Bastian  gives  an  account  of  another  case,  which 
came  under  his  own  observation.  The  patient  was 
a  woman,  aged  forty.  When  admitted  to  the  hospital 
(October  i,  1897)  she  was  completely  word-blind  and 
almost  completely  word-deaf.  Her  condition  later 
was  as  follows  :  ^ 

"November  25.  Examination  by  the  House  Physician 
(Dr.  J.  S.  Collier).  No  word-deafness  now.  She  corrects  me 
directly  when  I  make  a  mistake  in  the  multiplication  table. 

1  Bastian,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  291  f. 


APHASIA  159 

The  only  words  she  uses  voluntarily  are  'no,'  which  she  uses 
correctly,  and  'Bull,'  the  name  of  the  patient  next  to  her.  If 
the  alphabet  be  repeated  slowly  to  her  she  joins  in  and  will 
continue  to  repeat  it  alone  correctly.  Sometimes,  however,  she 
makes  a  mistake,  shakes  her  head  and  says  'no,'  and  cannot 
continue  until  she  is  started  afresh.  When  started  by  counting 
aloud,  she  can  count  up  to  twenty  alone,  with  some  defects  of 
articulation,  such  as  'en'  for  ten,  'fixteen'  for  sixteen,  'tenty' 
for  twenty.  She  cannot  say  the  easier  part  of  the  multiplica- 
tion table.  She  cannot  repeat  a  single  word  after  me.  She 
was  made  to  say  'eighteen,  nineteen,  twenty,'  about  a  dozen 
times  by  leading  up  with  '  sixteen,  seventeen, '  repeated  by  me 
aloud,  and  then  when  I  asked  her  to  say  '  twenty '  she  did  so  at 
once,  but  could  not  repeat  the  performance. 

"She  can  sing  a  tune  to  order.  She  commences  humming 
and  then  joins  in  mth  the  words,  many  of  them  perfectly  articu- 
lated, some  of  them  badly  articulated,  and  in  the  place  of  others 
mere  lalling.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  her  singing  of  the 
hjonn  'Hark,  hark,  my  soul,'  her  mistakes  being  printed  in 
itaUcs. 
'  Hark,  hark,  my  soul,  angeHc  songs  are  swelling 

O'er  earth's  green  eas  (seas)  and  ocean's  nave  mint  ore  (wave- 
beat  shore). 

How  sweet  the  truth  those  blessed  strains  are  selling  (telling) 

Of  that  new  life  where  sin  shall  be  no  more.' 

"She  sang  three  verses  of  this  hymn.  She  also  sang  to  order 
verses  of  the  following  hymns  :  —  '  Onward,  Christian  soldiers' ; 
'Jesu,  meek  and  gentle';  'Awake,  my  soul';  'At  even  ere 
the  sun  was  set' ;  and  others,  as  well  as  some  popular  ballads, 
such  as  'Belle  Mahone' ;  'Cherry  ripe,'  etc. 

"She  can  start  singing  these  herself.  She  can,  moreover, 
repeat  the  above  mentioned  verses  without  singing  if  she  is 
started  by  my  beginning  them  aloud,  but  she  caimot  say  them 


i6o       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

without  being  first  put  upon  the  track.  Her  articulation  of 
quite  difficult  words  in  the  singing  is  often  very  good,  but  in 
repeating  poetry  her  articulation  is  not  so  good  as  when  she 
sings. 

"She  cannot  repeat  a  single  word  dictated  to  her. 

"She  is  still  absolutely  word-bHnd.     She  names  letters  but 

quite  wrongly.     When  shown  a  letter  upside  down,  she  at  once 

placed  it  right  side  up.   When  shown  her  own  name  she  evidently 

did  not  recognize  it ;   she  spelt  it  out,  but  did  not  get  a  single 

letter  right,  thus  — 

Sarah    Brown 

iptea     eavrno 

"December  ii.  She  is  still  completely  word-blind;  she 
cannot  pick  out  a  single  letter,  or  recognize  her  own  name  spelt 
with  capitals.  She  has  said  a  few  more  words  spontaneously, 
such  as  'oranges'  and  'fish.'  She  still  cannot  name  any  object 
that  is  shown  to  her.  She  can  now  repeat  words  a  little,  such 
as  'father,'  'paper,'  'nice,'  —  has  done  so  about  a  dozen  times 
in  all.  She  understands  complicated  orders  at  once,  and  obeys 
correctly." 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  report  that  the 
patient  was  practically  devoid  of  spontaneous  speech, 
though  she  was  able  to  sing  with  considerable  facility. 
The  fact  that  she  could  count,  and  recite  words  in 
a  quasi-automatic  manner,  is  not  surprising.  This 
phenomenon  is  often  seen  when  the  defect  occurs  in 
the  auditory  centre.  The  words  are  produced  me- 
chanically, and  they  do  not  represent  verbal  thought 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  When  the  answer  to 
a  question  requires  the  enunciation  of  a  simple  num- 
ber,   the   patient  frequently  remains  mute,  —  even 


APHASIA  i6i 

though  he  may  be  able  to  count  in  a  mechanical  way. 
Singing  may  be  easier  for  these  patients  because  it 
is  a  mechanical  rather  than  a  thought  process. 

Transitory  Aphasia 

Aphasic  attacks  are  often  transitory,  lasting  for 
minutes,  hours,  days,  or  even  months.  These  attacks 
are  due  to  functional  disabilities  rather  than  to  lesion 
of  the  cerebral  tissue. 

Daly  records  a  case  ^  in  which  there  were  recurring 
attacks  of  transitory  aphasia  with  right  hemiplegia. 
In  one  day  there  were  as  many  as  ten  attacks,  varying 
in  length  from  ten  to  sixty  minutes.  The  patient 
would  suddenly  say,  ''I  am  all  right  again,"  and  the 
attack  would  be  at  an  end.  The  power  in  the  hemi- 
plegic  limbs  returned  almost  as  soon  as  the  faculty  of 
speech.  Bastian  suggests  that  the  attacks  were  due 
to  spasms  of  the  cerebral  blood-vessels  induced  by 
uraemic  poisons  in  the  blood. 

Ballet  ^  states  that  he  has  frequently  induced 
temporary  attacks  of  aphasia  in  himself  by  excessive 
tobacco-smoking.  He  ascribes  the  affection  to  a 
disturbance  of  the  kinaesthetic  memory.  He  has 
found  his  auditory  and  visual  verbal  images  to  be  clear 
at  such  times,  though  the  words  themselves  could  not 
be  pronounced. 

1  Quoted  by  Bastian,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  ii6  f. 

2"Le  langage  int6rieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  pp.  118  f. 


i62        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Trousseau  records  the  case  ^  of  Professor  Rostan, 
who  experienced  an  attack  of  temporary  aphasia. 
He  was  confined  to  his  bed  for  several  days  by  an 
injured  leg,  and  fatigued  his  brain  by  excessive  reading. 
When  the  attack  came  on,  he  noticed  that  he  did  not 
clearly  understand  what  he  was  reading.  When  he 
tried  to  call  for  assistance,  he  found  that  he  could  not 
utter  a  word.  He  was  also  unable  to  express  his 
thoughts  in  writing.  He  was  bled,  and  he  then 
found  that  he  could  say  a  few  words.  The  recovery 
was  gradual,  and  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours  was  com- 
plete. 

In  another  case  ^  a  minister  found  himself  aphasia 
one  morning,  after  being  exposed  on  the  previous 
evening  to  the  night  air  and  receiving  "a  check  to 
the  cutaneous  perspiration."  The  patient  understood 
everything  that  was  said  to  him,  but  was  himself 
unable  to  utter  a  word.  When  he  attempted  to  ex- 
press himself  in  writing,  he  wrote  the  meaningless 
phrase,  "Didoes  doe  the  doe."  He  was  bled  of  fifty 
ounces  of  blood;    thereupon  he  recovered  rapidly. 

Kussmaul  ^  records  the  case  of  a  thirteen-year-old 
girl  that  remained  aphasic  for  thirteen  months,  — 
the  effect  of  being  run  over  by  a  vehicle.     She  re- 

^  Cited  by  Bastian,  loc.  cit.,  p.  115. 

2  Bateman,  "On  Aphasia,"  2d  ed.,  p.  83;  quoted  by  Bastian, 
loc.  cit.,  pp.  115  f. 

'  "Stbrungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  213. 


APHASIA  163 

ceived  no  severe  injuries,  but  remained  speechless 
from  the  shock.  After  various  specifics  had  proved 
ineffectual  she  was  treated  with  potassium  bromide. 
One  day,  after  taking  the  medicine,  she  threw  herself 
in  her  mother's  arms,  and  whispered,  "Mother,  I 
am  going  to  speak  again."  In  a  few  weeks  she  had 
completely  recovered  her  lost  faculty. 

Intense  emotional  excitement  sometimes  induces 
temporary  attacks  of  aphasia.  Anger  or  fear  may 
leave  a  person  speechless  for  days.  Todd  ^  refers 
to  the  case  of  a  man  of  irritable  temperament  who 
became  so  excited  during  a  conversation  that  he 
completely  lost  his  power  of  speech.  He  remained 
aphasic  for  a  week. 

The  power  to  "speak  with  tongues,"  which  ac- 
companies reHgious  ecstasy  and  is  frequently  re- 
garded as  a  supernatural  manifestation,  is  doubtless 
nothing  more  than  a  passing  attack  of  jargon-aphasia. 

Lowered  Excitability  of  Brain-centres 

Aphasia  frequently  results  from  functional  weak- 
ness of  the  verbal  centres.  In  such  cases  it  usually 
takes  the  form  of  amnesia  without  word-deafness  or 
word-blindness.  (Defects  of  this  nature  are  likewise 
common  when  there  is  incipient  softening  in  the  cere- 
brum.)    The  patient  forgets  first  the  names  of  things 

^  "Clinical  Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Brain,"  p.  278;  cited  by 
Bastian,  loc.  cit.,  p.  124. 


i64       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

that  he  can  think  of  in  visual  terms ;  hence  the  names 
of  concrete  objects  are  the  first  to  go.  Abstract 
noims,  verbs,  prepositions,  etc.,  usually  have  the 
verbal  image  as  the  nucleus  of  the  concept;  hence 
the  verbal  image  is  in  this  case  less  readily  displaced. 
Amnesic  defects  are  often  induced  by  causes  that 
affect  the  cerebrum  only  indirectly;  they  operate  by 
lowering  the  general  vitaHty  of  the  nervous  system. 
Such  causes  are  old  age,  extreme  fatigue,  debihtating 
diseases,  etc. 

Trousseau  has  recorded  in  his  Lectures  a  case  of 
amnesia  due  to  lowered  vitality  of  the  verbal  centres:  ^ 

"'You  remember  the  experiment  that  I  often  repeated  at 
Marcou's  bedside.  I  placed  his  nightcap  on  the  bed  and  asked 
him  what  it  was.  But  after  looking  at  it  with  close  attention 
he  could  not  tell  what  it  was  called.  He  would  exclaim,  "And 
yet  I  know  weU  enough  what  it  is,  but  I  cannot  recoUect." 
When  I  told  him  that  it  was  a  nightcap,  he  would  reply,  "  Oh, 
yes!   it  is  a  nightcap." '"^ 

The  same  thing  occurred  when  he  was  tested  with 
other  objects.  He  could  seldom  name  them,  but  he 
recognized  the  names  when  they  were  mentioned. 
In  two  minutes  the  name  was  again  completely  for- 
gotten. In  this  case  the  sole  disability  was  amnesia. 
The  patient  recognized  words  and  could  repeat  them ; 
but  owing  to  the  enfeeblement  of  the  verbal  centres 
he  could  not  arouse  the  word-images  spontaneously. 

*  Ballet,  "Le  langage  interieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  pp.  80  f. 


APHASIA  165 

Wyllie  quotes  a  similar  case  in  his  ^'Disorders  of 
Speech."  ^ 

The  patient,  a  man  aged  twenty-seven,  sustained 
a  fracture  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  There  was  some 
disturbance  in  vision,  and  a  shght  '^motor  paresis"  in 
the  right  side  of  the  body.  At  first  there  was  word- 
deafness,  but  this  soon  passed  9ff. 

"The  peculiar  feature  of  the  case  has  yet  to  be  stated.  It 
was  a  most  remarkable  shortness  of  memory  for  objects  seen, 
and  for  words  seen  or  heard.  The  sound-image  of  a  word,  or 
the  visual  image  of  either  a  word  or  an  object,  could  easily  be 
revived  from  without,  and  its  revival  called  up  the  correspond- 
ing idea  or  meaning  in  the  normal  way ;  but,  as  to  visual  images, 
immediately  when  the  object  or  word  was  withdrawn  from  the 
patient's  sight  its  image  vanished,  and  he  totally  forgot  what 
object  or  word  he  had  been  looking  at ;  and  so  also  as  to  sound- 
images,  he  heard  the  word  spoken  to  him  and  understood  it, 
but  immediately  forgot  it,  and  could  not  repeat  it,  even  if  only 
a  very  short  interval  was  allowed  to  elapse  before  he  was  asked 
to  do  so. 

"Shown  a  knife,  he  knew  what  it  was,  and,  if  he  could  not 
recall  the  noun  'knife,'  he  said  it  was  something  for  cutting  with ; 
but  if  the  knife  was  then  placed  among  other  objects,  and  covered 
from  his  sight  for  a  moment,  he  could  not,  when  the  collection 
of  objects  was  again  uncovered,  tell  which  of  them  had  been 
shown  to  him. 

"It  was  the  same  with  visual  images  of  letters  and  words. 
Shown,  for  example,  the  letter  G  cut  out  in  wood,  he  easily 
recognized  it ;   but  if  it  was  then  covered  from  his  sight,  and 

1  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  pp.  384  f.  The  case  is  recorded  by 
Professor  Grashey,  Archiv  fiir  Psych.,  xvi,  1885,  p.  645. 


i66       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

placed  among  other  wooden  letters,  he  immediately  forgot 
what  letter  he  had  seen,  and  failed  to  pick  it  out  from  among 
the  others,  unless  he  kept  repeating  to  himself  'G,  G,  G,'  and 
thus  artifically  retained  it  in  his  memory. 

"And  it  was,  again,  the  same  with  the  sound-images  of 
words.  He  could  repeat  or  echo  any  word  spoken  to  him,  but 
the  memory  of  it  immediately  vanished,  if  he  did  not  retain  it 
artifically  by  repeating  it  over  and  over  again." 

In  this  case,  again,  it  is  evident  that  there  was  no 
destruction  of  the  brain-cells.  The  defects  were  due 
merely  to  lowered  excitability  of  the  centres. 

The  Ability  of  an  Aphasic  Patient  to  Repeat 

When  the  disturbances  producing  aphasia  are 
situated  in  the  auditory  verbal  centre,  and  when  the 
cortical  cells  are  not  destroyed,  the  patient  can  usually 
repeat  words  that  are  spoken  in  his  hearing.  He  may 
possess  this  ability  even  when  he  can  utter  scarcely  a 
word  spontaneously.  The  ability  of  the  patient  to 
repeat  words  can  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  the 
integrity  of  the  kinaesthetic  memory-centre. 

Instances  are  numerous  in  which  aphasic  patients 
have  been  able  to  pronounce  words  spoken  in  their 
hearing.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  little  girl  that 
could  sing  when  she  could  not  speak  spontaneously, 
*'was  able  to  repeat  most  words  correctly"  (p.  158). 
Even  when  she  sang  "  Weiss t  Du  wie  viel  Sternlein 
stehen,"  she  had  at  first  to  be  accompanied,  or  some 
one  had  to  commence  the  melody  for  her. 


APHASIA  167 

The  explanation  for  a  patient's  ability  to  repeat 
when  unable  to  speak  spontaneously  is  most  probably 
that  the  cortical  cells  are  too  much  enfeebled  to  permit 
the  spontaneous  evocation  of  the  auditory  image,  but 
not  sufficiently  weakened  to  resist  the  auditory  impres- 
sion. The  sensory  stimulus  overcomes  the  inertia  of 
the  cells,  and  while  the  primary  memory  endures,  the 
patient  is  able  to  repeat  the  words  that  he  could  not 
otherwise  pronounce.  The  phenomenon  sometimes 
takes  the  form  of  echolalia,  and  the  patient  reechoes 
almost  any  word  that  he  hears,  frequently  attaching 
no  meaning  to  it. 

This  condition  was  observed  in  one  of  Collins' 
patients  that  suffered  from  word-deafness,  word- 
blindness,  and  object-blindness.  Part  of  the  report 
of  the  case  is  subjoined :  ^ 

"Examination  of  this  patient  eight  months  later  reveals 
practically  the  same  condition  as  above  stated,  save  that  the 
word-deafness  is,  if  changed  at  all,  more  complete.  The  hemi- 
anopsia is  very  difficult  to  demonstrate,  and,  if  it  exists,  it  is 
very  slight.  The  only  change  of  any  import  is  a  marked  echo- 
laha  that  he  has  developed.  If  one  says,  '  How  old  are  you  ? ' 
he  repeats  over  and  over,  'You,  you,'  with  a  rising  inflection 
on  the  last  letter.  'How  is  papa?'  'Papa,  papa,'  repeated  and 
repeated.  Usually  he  takes  the  last  word  of  the  sentence  that 
he  hears  and  echoes  it,  occasionally  the  last  two  words.  Such 
as,  'WlU  you  have  an  orange?'  'An  orange,  an  orange,'  he  re- 
peats —  the  '  an '  with  great  vigor  and  clearness  of  enunciation 

^  Collins,  "The  Faculty  of  Speech,"  pp.  257-258. 


i68        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

and  with  a  rising  inflection  on  the  last  syllable  of  orange.  Com- 
plex words  he  occasionally  attempts  to  echo,  but  he  does  not 
succeed  in  so  doing.  There  is  still  a  degree  of  that  condition 
known  as  mind-blindness,  but  it  is  not  so  conspicuous  as  when 
he  was  first  seen." 

Referring  to  echolalia,  Bastian  says:^ 

"A  defect  of  this  kind  (occurring  in  a  woman  who  was  hemi- 
plegic  from  cerebral  haemorrhage)  has  been  recorded  by  Profes- 
sor Behier.2  She  was  born  in  Italy,  and  had  resided  both  in 
Spain  and  France ;  of  the  three  languages  she  had  thus  acquired 
she  had  completely  forgotten  the  Itahan  and  Spanish,  and  had 
only  retained  a  most  limited  use  of  French.  In  this  latter 
language  she  only  repeated  like  an  echo  the  words  pronounced  in 
her  presence,  without,  however,  attaching  any  meaning  to 
them.  But  in  the  case  of  a  woman  seen  at  the  Salpetriere  by 
Bateman  the  mimetic  tendency  was  much  stronger.  She  even 
reproduced  foreign  words  with  which  she  has  never  been  famil- 
iar." 

Many  cases  are  recorded  in  which  patients  reiterate 
words  without  understanding  them.  Their  failure  to 
understand  words  that  they  are  themselves  able  to 
enunciate  is  due  to  the  involvement  of  other  areas 
besides  the  auditory  centre.  If  the  visual  memory- 
centre  were  destroyed  in  an  eye-minded  person,  the  vis- 
ual associates  of  the  word-images  would  be  abolished, 
and  the  words  would  be  practically  destitute  of  mean- 
ing.    Many  words  would  retain   their  meaning  by 

1  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  152. 
*  Gazette  des  Hopitaux,  May  16,  1867. 


APHASIA  169 

virtue  of  associated  images  of  touch,  hearing,  etc. ;  but 
those  that  are  usually  associated  with  visual  images 
would  fall  meaningless  upon  the  ears  of  the  person 
affected.  Thus  there  may  ensue  a  degree  of  word- 
deafness  from  impairment  of  the  visual  memory- 
centre. 

This  last  condition,  impairment  of  the  visual 
memory-centre  (often  with  associated  defects  in  the 
auditory  centre),  is  probably  the  defect  that  exists  in 
those  few  cases  in  which  the  patient  is  able  to  repeat 
words  spoken  by  another  person  and  understand 
them  when  he  has  himself  pronounced  them.  The 
auditory  impressions  are  of  themselves  unable  to 
arouse  the  visual  images  in  the  partially  damaged 
centre;  but  when  the  auditory  impressions  are  re- 
inforced by  the  kinaesthetic  sensations,  the  conjoint 
stimuK  are  able  to  overcome  the  inertia  of  the  damaged 
cells.  Another  possible  explanation  is  that  the  fibres 
conveying  stimuli  from  the  auditory  to  the  visual 
centre  are  damaged,  and  that  the  stimuli  reach  the 
visual  centre  indirectly  through  the  kinaesthetic  word- 
centre.  This  explanation  is  open  to  the  following 
criticism :  The  kinaesthetic  verbal  images  must  be 
present  before  the  words  can  be  orally  produced.  If 
these  images  can  be  aroused  by  the  sound  of  the  words, 
there  seems  no  reason  why  they  should  not  excite  the 
visual  images  directly,  without  first  expressing  them- 
selves in  oral  speech.     This  criticism  is  not  easily 


I70       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

answered.  The  facts  seem  to  be  that  the  torpid 
cells  are  excited  only  by  the  summation  of  stimuli 
from  two  different  sources.  This  principle  of  the 
summation  of  stimuli  is  thoroughly  estabHshed  in 
psychology ;  and  it  is  one  that  should  be  particularly 
noted  at  this  point,  since  we  shall  revert  to  it  in  suc- 
ceeding chapters.  Where  a  single  stimulus  is  unable 
to  produce  a  given  response  — -  a  movement,  the 
arousal  of  a  mental  image,  etc.  —  the  response  is  often 
produced  by  the  cumulative  effect  of  several  different 
stimuli.  As  already  suggested,  this  probably  happens 
when  the  word-deaf  person  is  able  to  understand 
words  after  he  has  repeated  them,  —  the  word- 
deafness  being  occasioned  by  torpidity  of  the  general 
visual  centre  as  well  as  of  the  auditory  verbal  centre. 

The  Ability  of  an  Aphasic  Patient  to  Read  Aloud 

The  principle  of  the  summation  of  stimuli  is  ex- 
emphfied  in  many  aphasic  (or  amnesic)  patients  that 
are  able  to  assist  themselves  by  visual  stimuli.  The 
verbal  centres  may  be  too  weak  to  permit  the  sponta- 
neous recall  of  words,  but  they  nevertheless  respond 
when  there  is  an  additional  stimulus  from  the  visual 
centre.  Thus  it  is  sometimes  found  that  a  patient 
can  read  aloud,  though  he  cannot  express  himself 
spontaneously.  In  some  such  cases  it  is  probable  that 
the  kinaesthetic  verbal  centre  is  excited  directly  from 
the  visual  verbal  centre  without  the  intervention  of 


APHASIA  171 

the    auditory    centre.     The    images    of    articulatory 

movements  are  then  aroused  directly  by  association. 

Graves^  records  an  interesting  case  in  which  an 

amnesic  patient  assisted  himself  by  visual  stimuli : 

"The  man  was  a  farmer,  aged  50  years,  who  had  suffered 
from  a  paralytic  attack  from  which  he  had  not  recovered  at  the 
time  of  observation.  The  attack  was  succeeded  by  a  painful 
hesitation  of  speech.  His  memory  was  good  for  all  parts  of 
speech  except  noun-substantives  and  proper  names ;  the  latter 
he  could  not  at  all  retain.  This  defect  was  accompanied  by 
the  following  singular  peculiarity:  he  perfectly  recollected  the 
initial  letters  of  every  substantive  or  proper  name  for  which 
he  had  occasion  in  conversation,  though  he  could  not  recall  to 
memory  the  word  itself. 

"Experience  had  taught  him  the  utility  of  having  written 
on  manuscript  a  list  of  the  things  he  was  in  the  habit  of  calling 
for  or  speaking  about,  including  the  proper  names  of  his  chil- 
dren, servants,  and  acquaintances ;  all  these  he  arranged 
alphabetically  in  a  little  pocket  dictionary,  which  he  used  as 
follows :  if  he  wished  to  ask  anything  about  a  cow,  before  he 
commenced  the  sentence  he  turned  to  the  letter  C,  and  looked 
out  the  word  'cow,'  and  kept  his  finger  and  eye  fixed  upon  the 
word  until  he  had  finished  the  sentence.  He  could  pronounce 
the  word  'cow'  in  its  proper  place  so  long  as  he  had  his  eye 
fixed  upon  the  written  letters ;  but  the  moment  he  shut  his 
book  it  passed  out  of  his  memory  and  could  not  be  recalled, 
although  he  recollected  its  initial,  and  could  refer  to  it  when 
necessary.  He  could  not  even  recollect  his  own  name  unless 
he  looked  out  for  it,  nor  the  name  of  any  person  of  his  acquaint- 

^  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal,  1851.  Case  quoted  by  Bastian, 
"Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  148. 


172        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

ance ;  but  he  was  never  at  a  loss  for  the  initial  of  the  word  he 
wished  to  employ. " 

In  a  somewhat  similar  case  recorded  by  Aber- 
crombie  ^  the  patient  resorted  to  visual  impressions 
to  assist  himself  in  interpreting  spoken  language: 

"  His  mental  faculties  were  so  entire  that  he  was  engaged  in 
most  extensive  agricultural  concerns,  and  he  managed  them  with 
perfect  correctness  by  means  of  a  remarkable  contrivance.  He 
kept  before  him  in  the  room  where  he  transacted  business  a 
list  of  the  words  which  were  most  apt  to  occur  in  his  intercourse 
with  his  workmen.  When  one  of  them  wished  to  communi- 
cate with  him  on  any  subject  he  first  heard  what  the  workman 
had  to  say,  but  without  imderstanding  him  further  than  to 
catch  the  words.  He  then  turned  to  the  words  in  his  written 
list,  and  whenever  they  met  his  eye  he  understood  them  per- 
fectly." 

This  is  a  case  in  which  there  must  have  been  sum- 
mation of  stimuli  —  even  if  we  suppose  the  patient  to 
have  been  a  typical  visile.  He  would  find  at  best 
only  one  or  two  words  in  his  written  list,  but  these 
would  add  their  weight  to  the  auditory  impressions 
and  assist  in  overcoming  the  inertia  of  those  cells 
whose  torpidity  isolated  the  acoustic  sensations. 

Lichtheim  records  a  case^  in  which  the  patient  was 
able  to  read  fluently,  although  he  was  aphasic  for 
spontaneous  speech.     The  patient  could  repeat  quite 

^"Inquiry  into  the  Intellectual  Powers,"  7th  ed.,  p.  158.  Cited 
by  Bastian,  loc.  cit.,  p.  158. 

^  Brain,  1885.     Quoted  by  Bastian,  loc.  cit.,  p.  150. 


APHASIA  173 

accurately,  so  it  is  plain  that  the  cause  of  the  speech- 
disturbance  was  merely  a  diminished  excitability 
of  the  auditory  centre.  The  patient  was  a  medical 
practitioner  that  had  become  aphasic  as  the  result  of 
a  carriage  accident.  There  was  paresis  in  the  right 
arm  and  leg. 

"Speech  was  much  affected;  the  first  day  the  patient  said 
only  'Yes'  or  *'No,'  but  quite  appositely.  Gradually  more  and 
more  words  returned,  at  first  imperfectly.  Whilst  his  vocabu- 
lary was  still  very  meagre,  it  was  observed  that  he  could  repeat 
everything  perfectly.  Soon  after  the  accident  he  began  to  read 
with  perfect  understanding.  It  was  established  beyond  doubt 
that  he  could  read  aloud  perfectly  at  a  time  when  he  could 
scarcely  speak  at  all.  The  statements  of  his  wife  are  most 
positive  and  trustworthy  upon  this  point,  though  he  himself 
does  not  recollect  what  took  place  just  after  the  accident.  She 
states  that  after  much  difficulty  in  making  himself  understood 
by  gestures  he  obtained  a  newspaper,  and  to  the  great  astonish- 
ment of  all  present  he  began  to  read  fluently.  She  herself 
thought  it  most  strange  and  inexplicable.  .  .  .  He  could  not 
write  voluntarily  at  all ;  but  this  faculty  returned  slowly  and 
imperfectly,  as  did  speech.  On  the  other  hand,  he  could,  soon 
after  he  left  his  bed,  copy  and  write  from  dictation." 

Bastian  reports  two  similar  cases  in  ''The  Brain 
as  an  Organ  of  Mind."  ^  Both  patients  were 
aphasic  for  spontaneous  speech.  Neither  could 
repeat  very  readily ;  yet  both  could  read  with  facihty, 
—  one,  indeed,  evincing  no  trace  whatever  of  his 
speech-defect  when  reading.     In  these  cases  it  seems 

^  pp.  623-626. 


174        THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

probable  that  the  kinaesthetic  centre  was  excited 
directly  from  the  visual  verbal  centre.  The  patients 
were  probably  articulo-moteurs  in  whom  the  motor 
memory-centre  had  become  fimctionally  weakened. 
The '  affection  could  scarcely  have  been  one  of  the 
auditory  centre,  for  under  such  circumstances  the 
patients  should  have  had  less  difficulty  in  repeating 
spoken  language.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  the  pecuHar 
symptoms  may  have  been  due  to  an  interruption  in 
the  audito-kinaesthetic  association-tract.^  So  long  as 
the  visuo-kinaesthetic  tract  remained  uninjured,  the 
patients  might  be  able  to  speak  when  assisted  by  visual 
associations  even  though  they  were  imable  to  speak 
spontaneously. 

Interjectional  Speech 

Under  strong  emotional  excitement  aphasic  patients 
often  give  expression  to  words  or  phrases  of  an  inter- 
jectional nature.^  This  sometimes  occurs  even  when 
the  patient  is  otherwise  completely  mute.  Ballet^ 
cites  the  case  of  a  distinguished  lady  whose  sole 
vocabulary  consisted  in  the  expression  Sacre  nom  de 

^  In  naming  association-tracts,  the  centre  is  given  j&rst  from 
which  the  stimulus  is  supposed  to  emanate.  Thus,  activity  flows 
from  the  auditory  to  the  kinaesthetic  centre  through  the  atidito- 
kincEsthetic  tract.  It  flows  in  the  reverse  direction  through  the 
kincBsthetic-anditory  tract. 

2  See  p.  1 24. 

'"Le  langage  int6rieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  pp.  1 19-120. 


APHASIA  175 

Dieu!  He  states  also  that  the  speech  of  the  poet 
Baudelaire  was  limited  to  the  expletive  Cre  nom!  ere 
nom!     Numerous  cases  of  like  nature  are  on  record. 

The  explanation  for  this  exclamatory  speech  may  be 
found  in  the  greater  intensity  of  the  emotional  stimu- 
lus. Just  as  several  normal  stimuH  acting  concur- 
rently may  produce  a  response  in  torpid  cells,  so  a 
single  stimulus  may  produce  a  response  if  its  intensity 
equals  that  of  the  sum  of  the  several  stimuli. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  familiar  and  emotional 
expressions  (''degraded"  speech)  are  represented  in 
the  right  hemisphere  of  the  brain.  The  assumption  is 
rather  gratuitous ;  and  the  fact  that  it  disposes  of  a 
few  difficulties  is  not  sufficient  warrant  for  its  accept- 
ance. It  seems  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
different  mental  images  are  represented  in  the  cor- 
tex by  a  plurality  of  cells,  and  that  some  of  the  cells 
escape  damage.  If  a  few  of  these  undamaged  cells 
were  strongly  excited,  the  effect  would  be  the  same  as 
though  a  greater  number  of  cells  were  excited  to  a  less 
degree. 

It  is  manifest  that  a  mental  image  becomes  more 
deeply  ingrained  through  the  repetition  of  a  sensation. 
Even  when  there  are  extensive  organic  lesions  in  the 
cerebral  centres,  the  memory  of  more  famihar  experi- 
ences frequently  endures.  An  aphasic  patient  may  be 
practically  mute,  and  yet  be  able  to  give  expression  to 
such  famihar  words  as  yes  and  no.     Often  an  agraphic 


176        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

patient  can  write  his  own  signature,  and  often  a  word- 
blind  patient  can  read  his  own  name.  Frequently  the 
amnesic  polyglot  patient  loses  his  memory  for  one  or 
more  languages,  while  the  memory  for  his  mother- 
tongue  remains  unimpaired.  One  cannot  for  a  mo- 
ment suppose  that  the  destructive  processes  of  disease 
respect  the  conscious  content  of  a  cell,  —  that  the 
cell  presiding  over  no  is  less  Kable  to  destruction 
than  the  cell  presiding  over  the  word  negative.  But, 
since  the  more  famihar  expression  is  less  readily 
forgotten,  the  only  alternative  is  to  suppose  that  it  is 
more  extensively  represented  in  the  cortex.  If  this  is 
the  case,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  repetition  brings 
new  cells  into  activity. 

When  a  lesion  is  inflicted  upon  one  of  the  centres  in 
the  memory-hemisphere  of  the  brain,  the  function  of 
the  centre  is  in  some  instances  vicariously  assumed  by 
the  corresponding  centre  of  the  uninjured  hemisphere. 
This  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  early  childhood,  but 
with  persistent  education  it  appears  to  occur  in  some 
instances  in  later  life.  The  transference  of  function  is, 
of  course,  effected  by  reeducating  the  patient.  The 
word-concepts  are  not  bodily  transferred  to  the  un- 
injured hemisphere  of  the  brain;  they  have  to  be 
organized  afresh  through  the  reestablishment  of 
associations.  If  the  auditory  centre  in  the  left  hemi- 
sphere happens  to  be  injured,  the  cells  in  the  right 


APHASIA  177 

hemisphere  must  become  active  before  the  auditory 
memory  can  be  reestablished.  But,  for  the  auditory 
images  to  possess  associations  of  meaning,  it  is  evident 
that  these  new  auditory  cells  must  be  in  physiological 
connection  with  memory-cells  in  other  centres  of  the 
brain.  These  centres  are  probably  not  transferred 
from  the  old  hemisphere.  They  are  connected  with  the 
new  hemisphere  by  transverse  fibres ;  hence  the  organic 
association  may  be  transverse.  It  is  quite  clear  that 
the  new  associations  can  be  established  only  by  asso- 
ciations in  actual  experience,  —  and  this,  too,  even 
when  the  memory-cells  of  the  undamaged  centres  are 
not  replaced  by  new  ones.  Thus  the  patient  has 
practically  to  be  educated  anew.  The  process  of  re- 
education is  a  slow  and  laborious  one.  Except  in  the 
case  of  the  very  young  child,  the  transference  of  func- 
tion hardly  ever  takes  place  spontaneously. 

The  question  may  suggest  itself  as  to  whether  it 
would  not  be  desirable  for  one  to  strengthen  the  weaker 
image-types  lest  the  more  dependable  images  should 
at  some  time  become  impaired.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, whether  the  mental  images  can  be  developed  to 
any  great  extent.  Some  psychologists  have  asserted 
that  the  weaker  images  can  be  developed  by  more 
frequent  use  and  by  the  multiplication  of  associations, 
but  the  matter  is  really  open  to  question.  The  subject 
will  be  discussed  later  in  another  connection.     But, 


178        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

assuming  for  the  time  that  mental  images  can  be  de- 
veloped, it  is  certain  that  the  limit  of  development 
would  be  low  for  a  type  of  imagery  that  does  not 
freely  and  spontaneously  assert  itself.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  Hmit  of  development  would  be  high  for  the 
type  of  imagery  that  predominates  in  one's  thinking. 
Nevertheless,  a  limited  development  of  the  rudimen- 
tary imagery  mi^ht  be  considered  more  desirable  than 
no  development  at  all.  The  trouble,  however,  is  this  : 
One  does  not  possess  the  ability  and  intelligence  to 
direct  one's  thinking  during  that  period  of  Hfe  when 
the  mind  is  in  the  plastic  state.  By  the  time  the 
necessary  ability  and  intelligence  are  acquired,  the 
mental  characteristics  are  practically  established ;  and 
though  it  may  be  possible  to  strengthen  the  weaker 
imagery  to  a  limited  extent,  the  salient  mental  traits 
will  be  unalterable. 

Whatever  may  be  the  degree  to  which  mental 
images  can  be  developed,  it  is  certain  that  it  would  be 
of  little  benefit  for  one  to  strengthen  the  weaker  im- 
ages merely  as  a  safeguarding  measure  in  case  of  depri- 
vation of  the  more  dependable  faculties.  Cerebral 
lesions  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  a  person  suffering 
such  injuries  is  usually  unequivocally  hors  de  combat. 
When  the  lesion  is  not  fatal  to  Hfe  or  intellect,  there 
occurs  spontaneous  development  of  those  faculties 
that  remain  unimpaired,  and  they  then  reach  a  degree 
of  efficiency  that  would  formerly  have  been  unattain- 


APHASIA  179 

able.  Considering  the  other  side  of  the  question: 
should  some  misadventure  result  in  the  obliteration  of 
a  carefully  strengthened  type  of  imagery,  then  the 
ensuing  loss  would  be  far  more  disastrous  than  would 
have  been  the  case  if  the  imagery  had  remained  unde- 
veloped. However,  cerebral  lesions  are  too  infrequent 
to  warrant  the  adoption  of  psychological  prophylactic 
measures ;  and  any  development  of  imagery  that  may 
be  possible  will  be  resorted  to  for  utilitarian  purposes 
and  not  as  a  safeguarding  measure  against  an  unlikely 

contretemps. 

Causes  of  Aphasia 

The  causes  of  aphasia  are  somewhat  arbitrarily 
differentiated  as  functional  and  organic.  In  reahty 
there  is  no  such  division,  for  functional  defects  are 
in  themselves  due  to  organic  causes ;  though  the 
abnormal  organic  conditions  may  not  be  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  Strictly  speaking,  even  chemical  changes 
are  organic.  The  classification  of  defects  as  functional 
and  organic  is  one  only  of  convenience. 

Among  the  most  obvious  of  the  organic  causes  of 
aphasia  is  laceration  of  the  cerebral  tissue.  This  is 
usually  due  to  penetration  of  the  skull  by  some  foreign 
body.  A  spUnter  of  bone  may  itself  press  upon  the 
brain  or  may  lacerate  the  cortex.  This  sometimes 
happens  when  the  cranium  is  struck  by  a  dull  body,  — 
as  the  result  of  a  fall,  for  instance.  Sometimes  aphasia 
occurs  from  these  causes  when  there  is  no  fracture  of 


i8o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

the  skull.  In  such  cases  there  is  laceration  of  the  finer 
cerebral  fibres,  or  the  disturbance  is  induced  indirectly 
by  the  mental  shock. ^  Further  organic  causes  are 
cerebral  tumors  or  abscesses,  inflammation  of  the  brain, 
softening  of  the  brain  (often  due  to  obstruction  of  the 
cerebral  blood-vessels) ,  rupture  of  the  cerebral  vessels, 
tuberculosis  of  the  meninges,  etc. 

Among  the  so-called  functional  causes  of  aphasia 
are  temporary  obstruction  of  the  cerebral  vessels, 
spasm  of  the  vessels,  etc.  Cerebral  congestion  may 
Hkewise  induce  aphasia.  Aphasia  is  often  due  to 
nervous  exhaustion  following  overwork,  mental  fa- 
tigue, worry,  etc.  Another  frequent  cause  is  a  toxic 
condition  of  the  blood  —  due  to  lead  or  copper  poi- 
soning, poisoning  by  stramonium,  belladonna,  etc. 
A  toxic  condition  may  likewise  be  caused  by  snake- 
bites, acute  alcohoKsm,  bromide  intoxication,  excessive 
tobacco-smoking,  and — when  the  poison  is  engendered 
within  the  system — by  diabetes,  gout,  Bright's  disease, 
typhoid  fever,  smallpox,  measles,  etc.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said  that  aphasia  can  be  induced  by  any 
cause  that  brings  about  an  abnormal  condition  in  the 
cerebrum. 

^  See  p.  226. 


CHAPTER  VII 

STAMMERING 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  stammering.^ 
Our  first  task  will  be  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this 
speech-defect.  For  convenience,  we  shall  consider 
first  the  theory  of  its  cause  that  finds  at  the  present 
time  the  widest  acceptance  among  pathologists. 
This  theory  supposes  that  stammering  is  due  to  a  de- 
lay in  vocalization  ;  in  other  words,  to  the  stammerer's 
inabihty  to  produce  voice. ^  The  theory  was  first 
promulgated  by  Dr.   Neil  Arnott,   in   1827,   in  his 

^  The  word  stammering  is  used  in  this  work  generically  unless  an 
antithesis  between  stuttering  and  stammering  is  expressed. 

It  will  be  seen  later  that  the  distinction  between  stammering  and 
stuttering  is  an  artificial  one.  Skittering  is  usually  defined  as  a  form 
of  defective  speech  manifesting  itself  in  repetition  of  the  initial 
consonant.  Staynmering  is  defined  as  a  form  of  a  defective  utterance 
characterized  by  strangulatory  and  compressive  effort  —  or  as  any 
minor  form  of  speech-hesitation  that  is  not  stuttering.  Much  con- 
fusion has  arisen  in  these  definitions  through  English  and  American 
authors  translating  the  German  word  stammeln  {Idling  or  haby  talk 
in  its  milder  forms)  as  stammering. 

2  The  pathologist  regards  this  phenomenon  more  as  the  form  in 
which  stammering  manifests  itself.  The  "inability  to  vocalize"  is 
represented  as  the  cause  rather  by  ignorant  quacks,  who  guard  this 
as  one  of  the  secrets  of  their  profession. 

181 


i82        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

*' Elements  of  Physics."    Later  the  theory  was  sup- 
ported by  Merkel  in  Germany.^     Merkel  no  doubt 
advanced  the  theory  independently,  as  many  other 
writers  have  done  since  the  time  of  Arnott. 
Wyllie  expresses  the  theory  as  follows :  ^ 

"In  the  common  variety  of  stammering  the  speaker  neg- 
lects the  laryngeal  mechanism ;  and,  when  no  speech  is  emitted, 
he  unwittingly  throws  increased  force  into  the  wrong  quarter, 
\dz.,  the  oral  mechanism,  whose  nerve  centres  thus  become 
surcharged  with  energy,  which  may  overflow  into  other  centres 
and  produce  spasmodic  complications.  .  .  . 

"That  the  defect  of  speech  in  the  common  variety  of  stam- 
mering is  due  to  Delayed  Action  of  the  laryngeal  or  vocal 
mechanism  in  attacking  the  first  syllables  of  words,  is  an  old 
proposition ;  and  is  also  to  the  present  day  maintained  by  the 
best  writers  on  the  subject." 

Bastian  holds  the  same  view  concerning  the  cause  of 
stammering :  ^ 

"  Stammering  is  a  hesitating,  spasmodic  speech  defect  often 
beginning  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  year,  and  much  more  com- 
mon in  boys  than  girls,  which  is  due  not  so  much  to  a  want  of 
precision  or  coordination  in  the  action  of  the  several  groups  of 
muscular  elements  constituting  the  oral  articulatory  mechan- 
ism, but  rather  to  a  want  of  accord  between  the  action  of  the 
laryngeal  and  the  oral  speech  mechanisms.  There  is  mostly  a 
lagging  action  of  the  former." 

*  "Schmidts  Enzyklopadie  der  ges.  Medezin,"  Bd.  VI,  1844. 
2  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  pp.  2-3. 

*  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  p.  58. 


STAMMERING  183 

It  IS  easy  enough  to  show  that  the  difficulty  of  the 
stammerer  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  pro- 
duction of  the  vowel,  and  that  the  consonant  is  not 
the  obstacle,  as  would  appear  to  the  casual  observer. 
The  arguments  in  support  of  this  proposition  are  as 
follows : 

a.  When  the  stammerer  falters  on  a  continuous 
consonant,  he  usually  prolongs  the  consonant  for 
several  seconds.  He  stammers  on  the  word  six,  let 
us  say,  and  produces  the  s  continuously.  Now,  the 
fact  that  he  is  producing  the  ^  shows  clearly  that  he 
has  no  difficulty  in  articulating  the  consonant.  His 
difficulty  is  to  produce  the  vowel ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
vowel  is  uttered,  the  sibilation  stops.  In  a  mono- 
syllabic word  that  has  no  final  consonant  —  the  word 
so,  for  example  —  the  word  is  complete  as  soon  as  the 
vowel  is  enunciated.  The  same  arguments  apply  in 
every  case  of  continuous  stammering.  The  diffi- 
culty is  not  with  the  consonant,  since  this  is  usually 
produced  to  excess.  The  consonant  is  prolonged  only 
because  the  vowel  is  delayed. 

b.  In  stuttering,  the  consonant  is  produced  repeat- 
edly. The  speaker  attempts  to  say  ten;  but  he  pro- 
duces a  series  of  fs  and  the  word  becomes  t-t-t-ten. 
Since  the  t  is  repeatedly  articulated,  the  difficulty 
cannot  lie  with  the  consonant.  The  t  is  repeated  only 
because  the  succeeding  vowel  refuses  to  appear. 
(Unlike  the  letter  s,  the  /  cannot  be  produced  con- 


i84       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

tinuously;  hence  it  is  repeated  when  the  vowel  is 
delayed.)  The  same  argument  appUes  in  every  case 
of  stuttering  upon  explosive  consonants.  The  con- 
sonant is  repeated;  hence  there  is  no  obstruction  to 
its  articulation.  The  repetition  is  occasioned  only  by 
the  delay  in  the  appearance  of  the  vowel. 

c.  If  the  stammerer's  difficulty  lay  with  the  articula- 
tion of  the  consonant,  he  would  stammer  quite  as  much 
at  the  end  of  a  word  as  he  does  at  the  beginning.  The 
stammerer,  however,  never  hesitates  at  the  end  of  a 
word: 

"No  stammerer  has  ever  faltered  in  attaching  the  consonant 
to  the  vowel  in  such  syllables  as  ad,  ek,  ik,  oh,  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  for  him  to  do  ^."  ^ 

d.  That  the  difficulty  does  not  He  with  the  conso- 
nant, but  with  the  vowel,  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that 
stoppage  often  occurs  when  the  word  begins  with  a 
vowel.  The  stammerer  may  ffiid  the  word  any  as 
difficult  as  many,  and  angle  as  difficult  as  dangle. 
When  he  stammers  on  the  initial  vowel,  there  can  be 
no  question  concerning  difficulty  with  consonants. 
Often  there  is  no  consonant  at  all  in  the  word,  and  the 
difficulty  appears  with  such  words  as  /  and  a. 

e.  The  stammerer  rarely  has  difficulty  in  singing. 
But  song  differs  from  speech  chiefly  in  the  manner  in 
which  the  vowels  are  produced ;  while  there  is  mani- 

^Merkel,  "Anthropophonik,"  p.  908.  (Quoted  by  Denhardt, 
"Das  Stottem  eine  Psychose,"  p.  28.) 


STAMMERING  185 

festly  no  radical  change  in  the  consonants.  The 
absence  of  the  stammerer's  impediment  in  song 
indicates,  then,  that  the  vowels  occasion  the  difSculty 
in  speech. 

From  these  arguments  it  is  evident  that  the  stam- 
merer's trouble  is  due  to  the  delay  of  the  vowel. 
Hence  the  theory  arises  that  the  stammerer  is  unable 
to  produce  voice,  —  that  his  difficulty  is  due  to  a  lag- 
ging of  the  laryngeal  action. 

Unfortunately  this  theory  does  not  take  account  of 
all  the  facts,  and  the  facts  that  it  disregards  are 
sufficient  to  refute  it.  If  the  stammerer's  impedi- 
ment were  due  solely  to  his  inability  to  produce  voice, 
then  all  trace  of  the  impediment  should  vanish  as 
soon  as  he  begins  to  whisper,  for  in  whispering  no 
phonation  occurs.  But  actual  experience  shows  that 
the  impediment  persists  in  approximately  two  cases 
out  of  three  (Hermann  Gutzmann).^  This  is  con- 
clusive evidence  that  the  difficulty  does  not  lie  with 
the  production  of  voice,  as  such. 

A  second  fact  shows  just  as  conclusively  that  the 
difficulty  is  not  one  of  vocalization.  One  often  stam- 
mers on  continuous  sonant  consonants,  and  in  this  case 
there  is  continuous  production  of  voice.  In  endeavor- 
ing to  pronounce  the  word  many,  the  stammerer  may 
produce  the  m  slssl  continuous  humming  sound.     Here 

^  Kussmaul,  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  352. 


i86        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

there  is  certainly   no   delay   in   the   action  of    the 
larynx. 

Still  another  fact  bears  witness  that  the  stammerer's 
difficulty  is  not  one  of  phonation.  The  stammerer 
often  vocalizes  when  stammering  or  stuttering  upon  a 
vowel.  One  writer  says,  when  speaking  of  repetitive 
utterance :  ^ 

"It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  a  stammerer  to  go  through 
the  same  process  of  repetition  when  trying  to  pronounce  a 
word  commencing  with  a  vowel." 

Kreutzer,  in  endeavoring  to  defend  the  thesis  that 
stammering  is  a  "refusal  of  the  voice,"  writes  as  fol- 
lows :  2 

"If  the  answer  is  made  that  frequently  a  stutterer  repeats 
a  vowel,  as  E-E-E-E-E  in  Emil,  A- A- A- A- A  in  Adolf,  etc.,  and 
that  therefore  I  cannot  say  that  the  'E'  and  the  'A'  are  the 
obstacles,  I  must  still  maintain  my  ground,  for  a  closer  examin- 
ation soon  reveals  that  all  the  stutterer  vocalizes  is  only  a  part 
of  the  '  E '  and  the  '  A, '  and  that  the  vowels  are  never  perfectly 
formed." 

These  facts  clearly  show  that  the  stammerer's 
difficulty  is  not  one  of  phonation.  But  they  show 
further  that  his  difficulty  is  in  some  way  connected 
with  the  production  of  the  vowel.     When  the  stam- 

*  Mrs.  Emil  Behnke,  "On  Stammering,  Cleft-Palate  Speech,  Lisp- 
ing," p.  lO. 

2"Kreutzer's  Method"  {The  Voice,  1881,  Vol.  HI,  p.  175), 


STAMMERING  187 

merer  hesitates  while  whispering,  he  produces  the 
initial  consonant  repeatedly  or  continuously,  and  is 
unable  to  pass  to  the  vowel,  —  or  he  may  hesitate  on 
a  vowel  if  it  begins  a  word.  When,  in  speaking  aloud, 
the  stammerer  falters  on  a  continuous  sonant  conso- 
nant, he  produces  the  consonant  as  continuous  voice, 
but  is  unable  to  pass  to  the  vowel.  When  he  vocalizes, 
but  does  not  complete,  an  initial  vowel,  the  difficulty 
is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  vowel  itself. 

Now,  since  the  stammerer's  difficulty  is  to  produce 
the  vowel,  and  is  not  to  produce  voice  per  se,  it  is 
evident  that  his  difficulty  must  be  to  produce  the 
vowel-color  or  vowel-quality.  The  stammerer^ s  difficulty 
is  transient  auditory  amnesia:  he  is  unable  to  recall 
the  sound-image  of  the  vowel  that  he  wishes  to  enun- 
ciate. This,  then,  is  the  thesis  of  the  present  mono- 
graph. 

The  stammerer  is  an  audito-moteur.  He  rehes  for 
his  speech-cues  upon  both  kinaesthetic  and  auditory 
images.  When  he  stammers  in  enunciating  a  word,  it 
is  because  there  is  complete  failure  of  the  auditory 
image.  His  futile  struggles  with  the  initial  consonant 
are  directed  solely  by  his  kinaesthetic  imagery,  but 
he  cannot  pass  to  the  vowel  because  he  cannot  recall 
its  sound,  its  peculiar  or  characteristic  quahty,  —  in 
short,  the  vowel-color.  When  he  attempts  to  speak 
the  word  ten,  he  produces  the  /  entirely  by  feeling  ;  but 
he  cannot  mentally  hear  the  sound  e,  and  is  hence 


i88        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

unable  to  proceed.  His  mental  imagery  might  be 
diagrammed  as  follows  —  T-N ;  with  the  capitals 
representing  kinaesthetic  images  of  articulatory  move- 
ments, and  the  hyphen  representing  a  mental  hiatus. 
It  would  be  more  accurate  to  represent  the  mental 
image  as  T-,  simply;  the  consonant  representing  a 
kinaesthetic  image,  and  the  hyphen  representing  an 
auditory  blank.  The  kinaesthetic  image  of  the  N  does 
not  appear  during  the  stammerer's  futile  efforts  to 
articulate.  The  diagram  T-N  represents,  however, 
the  verbal  image  as  it  occasionally  appears  in  silent 
thought. 

The  assumption  is  not  made  in  regard  to  the  stam- 
merer's normal  verbal  imagery,  that  he  has  an  auditory 
image  only  of  the  color  of  the  vowel.  Many  stam- 
merers may  have  an  auditory  image  of  the  entire 
word,  but  so  long  as  the  image  fails  to  appear  during 
speech,  stammering  must  inevitably  result.  The 
stammerer's  kinaesthetic  image  of  the  initial  articula- 
tory movements  would  permit  him  to  struggle  with 
the  word,  but  till  the  auditory  image  arose  in  his 
mind  he  could  not  complete  it.  It  is,  however, 
primarily  the  failure  of  the  auditory  vowel-ircid^ge  that 
occasions  the  stammerer's  difficulty,  for  the  auditory 
impression  of  the  consonant  is  generally  supplied  by 
the  actual  stammering. 

The  theory  that  stammering  is  occasioned  by  the 
speaker's  inability  to  recall  the  auditory  image  of  the 


STAMMERING  189 

vowel-color  ^  is  borne  out  by  practically  every  mani- 
festation of  the  defect  and  every  phenomenon  con- 
nected with  it. 

In  the  simplest  form  of  stammering  there  occurs 
merely  a  pause  between  the  consonant  and  the  vowel ; 
the  pause,  of  course,  being  occasioned  by  the  speaker's 
inabiHty  to  redintegrate  the  necessary  auditory  image. 
Kussmaul  says  of  this  form  of  stammering :  ^ 

"There  are  slighter  forms  of  the  impediment  in  which  the 
defect  manifests  itself  only  in  undue  prolongation  of  the  con- 
sonants g,  k,  w,  etc.  In  our  younger  days  we  were  more  amused 
than  was  seemly  at  the  speech  of  an  old  nurse,  who  spoke  some- 
what as  follows :  '  K-h-ommen  Sie  endUch  ?  Der  K-h-affee 
ist  schon  etw-h-as  k-h-alt.'" 

The  defect,  it  will  be  seen,  is  not  a  prolongation  of 
the  initial  consonant,  but  simply  a  delay  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  vowel.  The  defect  differs  from  ordinary 
stuttering  or  stammering  only  in  the  fact  that  the 
initial  consonant  is  not  repeated  (stuttering)  when  the 
vowel-image  fails  to  appear,  and  that  there  is  no  at- 
tempt to  force  the  utterance  of  the  word  by  undue 
pressure  upon  the  consonant  (stammering).^ 

In  severe  cases  of  stammering  it  quite  frequently 

^  It  will  be  seen  later  that  auditory  amnesia  is  not  the  primary 
cause  of  stammering  when  the  disturbance  has  been  induced  by 
imitation. 

2  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  pp.  246-247. 

'  In  stammering,  the  articulative  efifort  is,  of  course,  occasioned 
by  the  inordinate  expression  of  the  kinaesthetic  image.     The  stam- 


igo       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

happens  that  the  speaker,  after  fearful  struggle  with 
a  word,  gives  utterance  to  an  entirely  inappro- 
priate vowel.  This  fact  shows  that  the  conditions 
affecting  the  vowel-image  are  abnormal.  Through 
defective  internal  audition  the  wrong  auditory  vowel- 
image  is  invoked,  or  no  auditory  image  is  invoked  and 
the  vowel  is  produced  kinaesthetically.  Kussmaul  has 
remarked  this  mutilation  of  sounds  in  syllable-stimi- 
bling  and  "stammeln"  —  forms  of  speech-defects  that 
sometimes  coexist  with  stammering:^ 

"With  the  syUable-stumbler  as  well  as  the  'stammler,* 
one  sees  quite  frequently  an  interchange  of  related  sounds; 
ii  and  i,  u  and  e,  oe  and  e,  u  and  o,  hard  and  soft  consonants, 
etc.  Or  the  preceding  or  succeeding  consonant  leads  to  the 
use  of  the  wrong  vowel  in  the  middle  of  the  word  because  the 
correct  vowel  involved  a  too  diflScult  transition."  ^ 

Hunt  also  refers  to  the  occurrence  of  this  phe- 
nomenon in  cases  of  stammering:^ 

"Let  us  take  a  simple  case:  when  the  stutterer  cannot  pro- 
duce a  vowel  sound,  —  a  vowel  stutterer.  In  this  case  two  ac- 
tions are  requisite;    first,  the  air  must  be  expelled  from  the 

merer  finds  himself  checked  at  the  consonant  when  the  auditory 
image  fails  to  appear.  He  struggles  with  the  consonant  largely 
through  ignorance  of  the  conditions. 

^  Kussmaul  considers  the  cause  of  stammering  to  be  "a  congenital 
irritability  or  weakness  of  the  syllable  coordinating  apparatus" 
(loc.  cit.,  p.  247). 

2  Kussmaul,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  220-221. 

•"Stammering  and  Stuttering,"  7th  ed.,  p.  239. 


STAMMERING  191 

lungs ;  next,  the  vocal  cords  in  the  larynx  must  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  vibrate.  The  difficulty  in  this  case  is  caused  by  the 
inability  to  associate  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  expiration  with 
that  of  the  vocal  cords.  ...  To  take  a  more  compUcated  case  : 
The  stutterer  can  produce  the  sound,  but  cannot  articulate  it 
so  as  to  form  the  desired  vowel.  Here  the  lungs  act  normally, 
but  the  disharmony  lies  in  the  coordination  of  the  action  of  the 
vocal  with  the  articulating  apparatus.  For  instance,  take  the 
word  how.  His  lungs  being  supposed  to  act  normally,  he  sounds 
the  aspirate  h  and  a  part  of  the  vowel.  Here  we  must  observe 
that  the  sound  ow  in  the  above  word  is  a  compound  sound  — 
au  and  00.^  He  produces  the  sound  aii,  but  fails  in  conjoining 
it  with  the  succeeding  sound  00.  This  requires  the  retrac- 
tion of  the  tongue  and  the  protrusion  of  the  Ups.  The  same 
difficulty  of  coordination  is  visible  here.  A  stutterer  of  this 
kind,  unless  his  respiration  is  at  fault,  in  which  case  no  sound 
can  be  produced,  finds  no  difficulty  in  producing  the  pure 
vowel  sound,  neither  has  he  any  difficulty  in  the  movements 
of  the  hps  and  tongue  when  not  speaking ;  but  when  these  are 
required  to  be  associated  for  the  formation  of  speech-sounds, 
he  hesitates  and  stutters." 

On  another  page  the  same  writer  says,  after  re- 
ferring to  another  form  of  stammering :  ^ 

"In  others,  again,  the  vowel  can  be  formed  in  the  larynx, 
but  the  stutterer  is  unable  to  complete  its  formation,  or  conjoin 
it  with  a  consonant,  by  the  intervention  of  the  articulating 
organs.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  sounds  i,  a  {ay), 
ow,  etc." 

^  The  elements  of  the  diphthong  ow  can  be  more  accurately  rep- 
resented as  ah-00  (as  in  far  and  who),  or  in  Bell's  Visible  Speech 
symbols  as  J^  or  3^.  —  C.  S.  B. 

2  Hunt,  loc.  cit.,  p.  246. 


192       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Ssikorski  likewise  describes  the  distortion  of  the 
vowel,  —  and,  like  Hunt,  has  a  physiological  explana- 
tion for  it :  ^ 

"  For  example,  the  vowel  u  somtimes  sounds  more  like  o  — 
this  because  the  lips  were  not  rounded  and  protruded  to  the  posi- 
tion for  u  when  the  spasm  ^  appeared,  but  were  merely  moving  to- 
ward this  position.  The  same  phenomenon  may  be  observed 
in  the  production  of  other  sounds  as  well." 

Beesel,  Colombat,  and  other  writers  also  describe 
this  imperfect  production  of  the  vowel. 

When  an  inappropriate  vowel  replaces  the  correct 
one,  there  is  either  a  wrong  auditory  image  in  the  mind, 
or  there  is  no  auditory  image  and  the  vowel  is  pro- 
duced kinaesthetically.  When  a  diphthongal  vowel  is 
only  partially  produced,  there  is  either  failure  of  part  of 
the  auditory  vowel-image,  or  —  what  is  more  likely  — 
there  is  failure  of  the  whole  image,  and  part  of  the 
vowel  is  motorially  initiated.  As  a  rule,  the  part  of 
the  vowel  that  is  produced  is  entirely  incorrect. 

Another  striking  phenomenon  shows  conclusively 
that  the  stammerer's  dilS&culty  lies  with  the  auditory 
vowel-image.  Often  stammering  occurs  only  when 
particular  vowels  appear  in  the  word.  The  nature  of 
the  initial  consonant  then  has  little  effect  upon  speech. 
This  fact  has  been  noted  by  Denhardt :  ^ 

*  Ssikorski,  "Ueber  das  Stottem"  (from  the  Russian),  p.  75. 
2  These  spasms  will  be  discussed  later  (pp.  263  JBF.). 

•  Rudolph  Denhardt,  "Das  Stottem  eine  Psychose,"  p.  31. 


STAMMERING  193 

"  Sometimes  one  meets  stammerers  for  whom  particular  con- 
sonants are  difficult  only  when  they  occur  in  conjunction  with 
particular  vowels.  Thus,  ko,  ku,  and  tu  may  be  difficult ;  but 
not  ka  and  ia." 

Stekel  reports  a  case  of  this  kind :  ^ 

"The  third  case  that  I  had  occasion  to  handle  concerns  a 
gentleman  that  was  unable  to  pronounce  words  containing  the 
vowel  a.  Words  in  which  the  a  occurred  twice  were  especially 
difficult.  It  cost  him  a  great  deal  of  effort  to  pronounce  such 
a  word  as  cataract,  and  it  was  extremely  painful  for  him  to  em- 
ploy such  words  in  conversation.  At  a  social  affair  he  once 
mispronounced  the  word  papa  as  popo." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  case  there  was  diffi- 
culty with  particular  vowels,  and  sometimes  mutila- 
tion of  the  vowels  when  they  were  finally  pronounced. 

As  a  rule,  particular  vowels  are  difficult  only  be- 
cause their  auditory  images  are  more  difficult  to  recall. 
The  most  difficult  vowels  for  the  stammerer  to  re- 
dintegrate are  those  that  are  least  definite  and  tangible 
in  their  coloration.  For  this  reason  stammering 
occurs  with  far  greater  frequency  on  the  short  vowels 
than  it  does  on  the  long  vowels.^  The  stammerer  is 
less  Hkely  to  have  trouble  with  the  word  light  than 
with  the  word  lit.  This  is  because  the  long  vowel  i  is 
clearer  and  more   tangible  than   the   short  vowel  t. 

*  "Nervosa  Augstzustande  und  ihre  Behandlung,"  p.  233 

2  Pitman  gives  the  long  vowels  as  ak,  a,  e,  aw,  0,  do  (pa,  may,  we^ 

all,  go,  too),  and  the  short  vowels  as  i,  S,  i,  d,  it,  66  {that,  pen,  is,  not, 

much,  good). 


194       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

The  auditory  image  of  the  former  vowel  is  more  read- 
ily redintegrated.  It  is,  as  it  were,  more  definite  and 
substantial,  and  the  mind  can  better  recall  it.  An 
analogy  may  be  drawn  between  vowel-color  and  color 
as  it  actually  appeals  to  vision.  The  long  vowel  in 
light  might  be  compared  to  a  vivid  and  definite  green, 
and  the  short  vowel  in  lit  to  an  intangible  and  indefi.- 
nite  gray.  The  vowel  in  hate  might  be  characterized 
as  red,  and  the  vowel  in  hat  as  indefinitely  brown. 
The  long  vowels  are  found  to  have  more  definite  color 
as  they  fall  upon  the  ear,  and  the  distinction  is  even 
more  marked  as  they  are  recalled  in  auditory  imagery. 
The  long  vowel  may  be  mentally  heard  with  con- 
siderable clearness  when  the  short  vowel  absolutely 
refuses  to  rise  in  consciousness.  When  this  vowel- 
sound  fails  to  appear,  the  stammerer  can  no  more 
pronounce  it  than  the  musician  can  tune  an  instru- 
ment from  a  key-note  that  he  has  not  heard. 

As  already  stated,  the  short  vowels  fail  more  fre- 
quently than  the  long  vowels;  hence  they  afford  the 
stammerer  greater  difi&culty.  This  fact  has  been  rec- 
ognized by  a  number  of  writers.     Dr.  Findley  says  :  ^ 

"Syllables  with  a  short  vowel  are  much  more  difficult  to 
utter  than  those  with  a  long  or  broad  sound ;  thus  it  is  much 
easier  to  say  hate,  heat,  hite,  danger,  than  to  say  hat,  het,  hit,  death. 
In  the  case  of  uttering  the  different  consonants,  there  is  no 
uniformity,  some  being  more  difficult  to  one,  others  to  another, 

^  The  Voice,  April,  1885  (article,  "Stammering"). 


STAMMERING  195 

generally  the  mutes  give  more  trouble  than  the  semi  vocals. 
In  this  respect  the  experience  of  the  same  person  is  not 
uniform." 

Itard,  who  wrote  nearly  a  hundred  years  ago,  says 
of  the  matter :  ^ 

"A  good  deal  also  depends  on  the  vowel  with  which  the 
consonant  is  combined ;  thus  stammerers  find  less  difi&culty  in 
articulating  co  than  ca." 

In  1830,  Hervez  de  Chegoin  wrote  as  follows  i^ 

"It  is  possible  to  convert  the  difficult  word  baliveau  into  a 
very  easy  one  without  changing  the  consonants  b,  /,  and  v,  but 
by  changing  the  vowels  that  follow  b  and  v.  To  illustrate,  be 
replaces  ba,  li  remains  unchanged,  and  vier  takes  the  place  of 
veau.  The  word  thus  becomes  belivier,  a  word  that  would  cause 
me  no  difficulty,  though  I  hesitate  on  the  word  baliveau.'' 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  case  the  short  and 
intangible  vowels  have  given  place  to  others  of  a  more 
definite  coloration. 

Wyneken  says  in  regard  to  long  and  short  vowels  :  ^ 

"I  may  remark  that  according  to  my  own  experience  these 
consonants  are  especially  difficult  when  combined  with  a  short 
vowel  or  diphthong  (au,  ai,  eu).  Most  stammerers  find  the 
words  Bann,  Pap  pel,  and  Kamm  more  difficult  than  Bahn, 
Papel,  and  Kam.  And  even  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  the  short 
vowels  and  diphthongs  occasion  stammering  more  frequently 

^  "M6moire  sur  le  b6gaiement"  (Journ.  universel  des  sciences 
midicales,  181 7). 

2  "Recherches  sur  les  causes  et  le  traitement  du  b^gaiement,"  p.  8. 
'  "Ueber  das  Stottem  und  dessen  Heilung,"  p.  6. 


196        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

than  the  long  vowels.    Thus  the  words  Otto  and  Ammen  are 
more  difficult  than  the  words  Otho  and  Amen."  ^ 

Statements  similar  to  those  quoted  above  are  made 
by  most  writers  on  the  subject  of  stammering. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  stammerer,  when 
employing  synonyms  for  difficult  words,  usually  re- 
places a  short  vowel  by  a  long  one.  It  often  happens 
that  the  initial  consonant  is  retained;  so  it  is  quite 
evident  that  the  consonant  itself  presents  no  difficulty. 
Thus  the  stammerer  says  saneness  instead  of  sanity; 
gamester  instead  of  gambler ;  dine  instead  of  take  din- 
ner; etc.  In  these  cases  there  is  a  change  from  a  short 
to  a  long  vowel,  though  the  initial  consonant  remains 
unaltered.  The  change  is  made  from  the  short  vowel 
to  the  long  one  because  the  long  vowel  has  a  more 
distinct  coloration,  and  hence  can  be  more  readily 
recalled. 

There  is  another  striking  phenomenon  that  shows 
clearly  the  relation  between  stammering  and  auditory 
amnesia.  The  stammerer  can  almost  invariably 
articulate  a  word  as  soon  as  some  one  pronounces  it 
for  him.  The  explanation  is,  of  course,  that  the 
acoustic  impression  supplies  the  refractory  auditory 

1  The  writer  can  scarcely  agree  with  Wyneken  that  diphthongs 
occasion  stammering  more  frequently  than  the  long  vowels  —  though 
they  frequently  occasion  a  more  conspicuous  form  of  stammering 
for  the  reason  that  the  speaker  can  commence  them  but  cannot  finish. 
Many  of  the  long  vowels  are  themselves  diphthongs,  but  the  short 
vowels  are  invariably  monophthongal. 


STAMMERING 


197 


image  from  without,  and  that  the  stammerer  need  not 
then  struggle  to  arouse  the  image  in  his  mind.  After 
he  has  heard  the  word  that  he  was  trying  to  enunciate, 
he  is  able  to  pronounce  it  while  the  primary  acoustic 
image  remains  clear.  As  soon  as  this  primary  memory 
fades,  he  stammers  on  the  word  as  before. 

The  abihty  of  the  stammerer  to  repeat  has  been 
noted  by  practically  every  writer  on  the  subject  of 
stammering.     Kussmaul  says  :  ^ 

"The  impediment  ceases  as  soon  as  some  one  pronounces 
the  refractory  word  by  way  of  assistance." 

Dr.  Rafael  Coen  makes  the  following  observation :  ^ 

"I  spoke  the  word  after  the  stutterer,  and  immediately  he 
could  say  it  without  the  least  hesitation.  This  is  a  fact  that  I 
have  observed  in  all  stutterers  [stammerers]  and  which  enables 
me  to  distinguish  stuttering  [stammering]  from  kindred  speech- 
affections." 

And  thus  Denhardt :  ^ 

"As  a  rule,  the  stammerer  can  repeat  without  hesitation  a 
word  that  he  hears  pronounced.  One  observes  this  very  fre- 
quently when  he  pronounces  the  word  for  the  stammerer  in 
order  to  put  an  end  to  his  painful  struggles.  One  pronounces 
the  diflScult  word  himself,  expecting  the  stammerer  then  to  pro- 
ceed. But  before  continuing  his  conversation  the  stanunerer 
almost  invariably  articulates  the  refractory  word,  —  and  this 
too  without  the  sHghtest  difficulty;   although  only  a  moment 

^  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  244. 

2  The  Voice,  Vol.  VII,  p.  22  (article,  "Stuttering"). 

•  "Das  Stottem  eine  Psychose,"  p.  51. 


-198        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

before,  the  word  seemed  checked  by  insuperable  obstacles. 
As  a  rule,  the  spasm  is  suspended  the  very  moment  the  stam- 
merer hears  the  recalcitrant  word  from  the  lips  of  his  compan- 
ion, and  it  gives  place  at  once  to  the  appropriate  and  thoroughly 
normal  conformation  of  the  speech-organs." 

This  ability  of  the  stammerer  to  repeat  is  attributed 
by  Denhardt  to  the  reassurance  the  speaker  derives 
from  the  knowledge  that  he  is  already  understood. 
Kussmaul  offers  a  similar  explanation.  Undoubtedly 
the  reassurance  mitigates  the  stammerer's  difficulty; 
but  this  is  not  the  chief  reason  for  his  fluency,  for  he  fre- 
quently stammers  when  he  knows  that  he  is  understood, 
and  he  stammers  sometimes  when  he  is  alone.  The  real 
explanation  is  that  the  auditory  impression  furnishes 
the  mental  image  that  was  not  previously  forth- 
coming. When  the  auditory  impression  is  supplied, 
the  stammerer  speaks  with  fluency  whether  his  words 
are  anticipated  or  not.  The  following  remark  by 
Wyneken  bears  out  this  statement,  and  the  reader  will 
agree  that  it  is  replete  with  significance  :  ^ 

"I  knew  a  schoolboy  that  was  unable  to  recite  his  lesson 
unless  a  companion  near-by  first  pronounced  the  words  quietly 
for  him." 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  difficulty  in  a  case  of  this 
kind  must  be  auditory  amnesia. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  preceding  chapter 
(pp.  166  ff.  and  172-173)  several  instances  were  cited 

^"Ueber  das  Stottern  und  dessen  Heilung,"  p.  19. 


STAMMERING  199 

in  which  patients  suffering  from  auditory  amnesia  were 
able  to  repeat  words  without  the  slightest  difficulty  even 
when  their  speech-disturbances  were  so  severe  that  they 
could  utter  very  few  words  spontaneously.  Stam- 
mering is  a  form  of  auditory  amnesia ;  thus  it  is  not 
surprising  that  it  should  exhibit  this  same  phenomenon. 
Ball  records  a  case  ^  that  shows  clearly  the  effect  of 
auditory  amnesia.  The  patient  developed  the  dis- 
turbance after  exposure  to  cold.  There  was  complete 
aphasia  for  several  weeks,  but  gradually  the  patient 
began  to  reacquire  command  of  language.  "He  had 
partial  word-deafness  from  the  commencement ;  and 
later  on  he  said,  'The  words  I  can't  pronounce  are 
the  words  I  can't  hear.'"  At  the  necropsy  a  lesion 
was  found  covering  the  inferior  parietal  lobule  and 
the  posterior  part  of  the  first  temporal  convolution. 
It  is  evident  from  the  location  of  the  lesion  that  the 
auditory  word-centre  was  affected.  The  patient  was 
unable  to  understand  particular  words  because  the 
auditory  cells  subserving  them  were  impaired.  But 
on  account  of  this  impairment  he  could  not  invoke 
the  auditory  images,  and  hence  was  unable  to  pro- 
nounce the  words  in  question.  This  phenomenon 
precisely  illustrates  the  amnesic  condition  that  oc- 
casions stammering ;  though  in  stammering,  the 
amnesia  is  transitory  and  word-deafness  is  little  in 

^Quoted  by  Bastian,  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  pp. 
327  f. 


200       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

e\'idence.  The  stammerer's  difficulty  is  less  severe 
because  the  cerebral  disturbance  is  usually  functional 
rather  than  organic. 

The  ability  of  the  stammerer  to  repeat  words  that 
are  pronounced  for  him  finds  its  parallel  in  his  ability 
to  repeat  a  word  that  he  finally  succeeds  in  uttering 
for  himself.  When  the  auditory  image  is  at  last 
redintegrated,  the  stammerer  pronounces  the  desired 
word,  the  sound  of  the  word  comes  back  through  the 
ear,  and  the  auditory  image  is  strengthened.  The 
result  is  that  the  stammerer  can  repeat  the  word  in- 
definitely, so  long  as  he  does  not  allow  the  auditory 
image  to  fade  into  its  former  obscurity.  The  im- 
munity with  the  particular  word  is  only  transient,  and 
when  the  primary  auditory  image  has  disappeared, 
the  stammerer  finds  the  word  as  difficult  as  ever.^ 

The  stammerer  can  usually  read  or  speak  aloud  in 
unison  with  other  people.  This  is  another  fact  that 
has  been  noted  by  most  writers  on  the  subject  of 

1  A  peculiar  fact  should  be  noted  at  this  point.  When  the  stam- 
merer has  not  been  understood  and  is  requested  to  repeat  a  word, 
he  cannot  always  do  so.  The  reason  for  this  is  twofold.  In  the  first 
place,  the  auditory  impression  from  the  word  is  not  definite  and 
clear.  If  the  word  had  been  clearly  pronounced,  it  would  have  been 
understood  by  the  person  listening.  If  the  word  is  not  clearly 
enunciated,  it  is  evident  that  the  auditory  image  cannot  be  greatly 
strengthened  by  the  aural  sensation.  The  second  reason  for  the 
stammerer's  inability  to  repeat  is  that  he  is  seized  with  mental  con- 
fusion and  fear.  The  effect  of  these  last  two  factors  will  be  better 
understood  after  the  perusal  of  succeeding  chapters. 


STAMMERING  201 

stammering.     Hunt  quotes  one  of  his  correspondents 
to  the  following  effect :  ^ 

"In  private  and  alone  I  can  read  and  speak  without  stutter- 
ing at  all ;  and  not  only  so,  but  in  church  can  join  in  aU  of  the 
responses  of  the  congregation  without  hesitation,  my  voice  be- 
ing borne  along  as  it  were  by  theirs ;  for  if  their  voices  suddenly 
were  silenced,  I  should  become  perfectly  speechless." 

The  explanation  for  the  stammerer's  fluency  under 
such  conditions  is  that  he  is  supplied  with  the  auditory 
impressions  of  the  words  by  those  around  him  — 
the  case  being  somewhat  analogous  to  the  stammerer's 
repeating  words  spoken  by  another  person.^  He  de- 
rives the  same  assistance  from  the  auditory  impres- 
sions that  the  musically  amnesic  patient  derives  from 
an  accompaniment. 

Wallaschek^  cites  the  case  of  the  opera  singer, 
Emil  Scaria,  who  was  suffering  from  some  incipient 
cerebral  disturbance.  The  patient  was  affected  by 
amusia,  and  found  himself  unable  to  recall  the  notes 
he  had  to  sing.  He  therefore  requested  the  manager 
that  some  one  be  allowed  to  accompany  him  upon  the 
stage  and  sing  the  notes  quietly  with  him,  as  he  could 
not  otherwise  remember  the  music.     There  seems  to 

1 " Stammering  and  Stuttering,"  7th  ed.,  p.  272. 

2  Undoubtedly  the  stammerer  is  also  assisted  by  the  fact  that 
general  auditory  impressions  tend  to  facilitate  the  arousal  of  the 
sound-images.     (See  pp.  347  ff.) 

'  "Die  Bedeutung  der  Aphasie  fur  die  Musik-vorstellung "  (Zeit- 
schrift  filr  Psychologic,  Vol.  VI,  p.  9). 


202        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

have  been  no  aphasia;  the  patient's  difficulty  lay 
apparently  only  with  the  pitch.  Musical  amnesia  of 
this  kind  is  quite  common  even  when  no  cerebral 
defects  are  present.  It  is  recognized  as  the  lack  of 
a  "musical  ear."  Often  the  person  cannot  keep  in 
tune  when  he  sings  by  himself,  but  has  no  difficulty 
if  some  one  sings  with  him  or  whistles  or  plays  the 
melody  for  him.  The  person  with  musical  amnesia 
cannot  recall  the  appropriate  pitch,  but  he  proceeds 
without  difficulty  as  soon  as  the  pitch  is  suppKed  by 
the  auditory  impressions  from  without.  With  the 
stammerer  it  is  not  the  pitch,  but  the  vowel-color,  that 
is  difficult  of  recall ;  and  as  soon  as  this  is  supplied, 
the  stammerer  speaks  with  perfect  fluency. 

Another  fact  showing  the  relation  between  stam- 
mering and  auditory  aphasia,  and  showing  the  effect 
of  tangibiHty  of  the  auditory  image,  is  that  the  stam- 
merer can  almost  invariably  sing  without  difficulty. 
In  the  preceding  chapter  (pp.  156-160)  several  in- 
stances were  cited  in  which  aphasic  patients  could 
sing  quite  readily,  although  they  had  practically  no 
command  of  voluntary  speech.  Thus  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  stammerer  should  sing  without  evinc- 
ing the  impediment. 

The  stammerer's  abihty  to  sing  could  be  most 
easily  explained  on  the  supposition  that  disparate 
brain-centres  preside  over  the  auditory  memories 
for  speech  and  music.     It  is  practically  certain  that 


STAMMERING  203 

the  anterior  part  of  the  first  temporal  convolution 
presides  over  the  musical  memory,  but  it  is  not  en- 
tirely certain  that  this  centre  presides  over  vocal 
music.  It  is  possible  that  it  may  store  up  the  memory 
merely  of  instrumental  music  or  the  memory  for 
pitch ;  hence  it  is  desirable  to  find  an  alternative  ex- 
planation that  does  not  premise  the  existence  of  dis- 
crete auditory  centres  for  speech  and  vocal  music. 

The  abiHty  of  the  stammerer  (and  sometimes  of  the 
aphasic  patient)  to  sing  is  readily  explained  by  the 
greater  tangibiHty  of  the  auditory  image  in  singing. 
As  the  long  vowel  is  more  tangible  than  the  short 
vowel,  so  the  musical  tone  is  more  tangible  than  either. 
The  auditory  impressions  derived  from  singing  the 
words  ''It was  the  New  Jersualem "  to  their  accustomed 
melody  are  infinitely  more  definite  and  substantial 
than  the  auditory  impressions  derived  from  speaking 
the  words  in  a  conversational  tone  at  conversational 
speed.  The  words,  when  sung,  are  more  Kkely  to  re- 
main in  memory  in  auditory  terms.  The  kinaesthetic 
images,  it  should  be  noted,  are  practically  identical 
in  speech  and  song.  It  is  the  auditory  images  alone 
that  differ.  In  song,  the  auditory  nucleus  is  more 
substantial. 

The  musical  memory  must  subsist  largely  in  auditory 
terms,  for  it  is  almost  exclusively  a  memory  of  pitch. 
When  a  note  is  sung,  it  maintains  the  same  absolute 
pitch  through  its  entire  duration,  and  this  pitch  is 


204       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

retained  in  memory.  In  speech  there  is  inflection, 
and  the  pitch  changes  even  during  the  enunciation  of 
a  single  syllable.  The  pitch,  then,  is  the  principal 
element  in  song,  and  vowel-color  is  purely  secondary. 
As  a  rule,  the  vowel-color  is  sacrificed  by  the  singer, 
and  the  auditor  is  quite  unable  to  tell  what  words  are 
being  sung.  This  surrender  of  vowel-color  is  another 
reason  for  the  stammerer's  ability  to  sing,  for  his 
difficulty  Hes  with  the  vowel-color  and  not  with  the 
pitch.  Even  if  the  vowel-color  were  accurately 
rendered  in  singing,  one  could  readily  explain  its 
greater  intensity  in  auditory  memory  by  the  fact  that 
the  vowel  has  a  greater  duration.  In  speech,  the 
stammerer  has  less  difficulty  with  the  so-called  short 
vowels  that  have  a  relatively  long  duration  ^  than  he 
has  with  those  that  are  actually  accorded  a  staccato 
utterance. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  stammerer  cannot  sing 
songs  of  every  kind  without  difficulty.  A  "patter" 
song,  by  reason  of  its  rapid  movement,  often  causes 
as  much  difficulty  as  speech.  The  notes  are  of  short 
duration,  and  the  singing  approximates  ordinary 
speech.     It   is   only   when   the   notes    are    actually 

^  The  short  vowels  as  well  as  the  long  vowels  can,  of  course,  be 
prolonged  till  the  breath  is  exhausted.  The  designation  short  and 
long  is  rather  inapt.  The  difference  is  one  of  color  rather  than  of 
length,  for  even  in  speech  the  "short"  vowels  often  possess  a  rela- 
tively long  duration. 


STAMMERING  205 

lengthened,  and  vowel-color  gives  precedence  to  pitch, 
that  the  stammerer's  difficulty  in  singing  vanishes. 

To  summarize  these  arguments :  The  stammerer's 
ability  to  sing  is  accounted  for  by  the  greater  sub- 
jective tangibility  of  the  general  auditory  impression, 
and  the  consequent  greater  tangibihty  of  the  auditory 
image.  Fluency  in  singing  is  further  explained  by 
the  fact  that,  in  song,  pitch  is  preeminent,  while  vowel- 
colors  are  subordinated. 

These  facts  present  the  psychological  reasons  for 
the  stammerer's  abiHty  to  sing.  They  do  not  neces- 
sarily presuppose  that  singing  is  a  special  faculty 
subserved  by  a  special  brain-centre.  But  whatever 
may  be  the  facts  in  regard  to  special  localization,  and 
whatever  the  subjective  facts  concerned,  the  mere 
ability  of  the  stammerer  to  sing  supplies  a  potent 
argument  in  support  of  the  thesis  that  stammering 
is  a  form  of  auditory  aphasia. 

It  is  possible  to  adduce  a  physiological  reason  for 
the  fact  that  the  stammerer  sings  more  readily  than 
he  speaks.  The  inflection  of  speech  demands  a  far 
more  complicated  action  of  the  vocal  organs.  During 
the  rise  and  fall  of  pitch  there  is  an  increase  or  de- 
crease in  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords,  —  this  change 
of  tension  requiring  delicate  muscular  action.  In  sing- 
ing, each  single  note  remains  at  a  definite  pitch,  and 
there  is  no  change  in  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords  till 
the  next  note  is  reached.     This  is  the  explanation  that 


.206        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

is  generally  advanced  for  the  stammerer's  freedom 
from  his  defect  in  singing.  There  is,  however,  no 
occasion  to  look  for  physiological  explanations,  for 
the  various  paradoxes  of  stammering  are  certainly 
of  psychological  origin.^ 

Sufficient  has  been  said  of  the  subjective  aspect  of 
stammering  to  show  that  it  is  caused  by  a  failure 
of  the  auditory  image  to  rise  in  consciousness,  — 
in  other  words,  that  it  is  due  to  auditory  amnesia. 
Subsequently,  further  evidence  will  be  adduced  in 
support  of  this  thesis;  but  we  shall  now  consider 
more  directly  the  points  of  objective  similarity  be- 
tween stammering  and  aphasia. 

It  is  generally  conceded  by  investigators  that  stam- 
mering is  a  form  of  aphasia,  but  the  defect  is  usually 

^  There  may  sometimes  exist  a  physiological  disturbance  in  the 
brain,  but  there  is  no  physical  defect  in  the  peripheral  organs. 
The  absence  of  physical  defect  in  the  organs  of  speech  is  easily 
demonstrated.  The  stammerer  usually  enjoys  fluent  speech  for 
several  years  before  the  inception  of  the  impediment;  hence  his 
speech-organs  cannot  be  malformed.  Furthermore,  there  are  almost 
invariably  certain  circumstances  under  which  the  stammerer  can 
speak  with  facility  after  the  development  of  the  impediment.  He 
speaks  without  stammering  in  the  presence  of  friends,  or  perhaps  in 
the  presence  of  strangers;  almost  invariably  he  speaks  well  when 
alone.  He  repeats  with  facility,  and  speaks  well  in  concert  with 
other  people.  He  does  not  always  stammer  on  the  same  words ;  and 
he  can  repeat  —  after  he  has  once  pronounced  it  —  almost  any  word 
that  occasions  difficulty.  Whenever  there  exists  a  defect  in  the 
peripheral  organs,  the  disturbance  in  speech  manifests  itself  im- 
partially under  all  conditions. 


STAMMERING  207 

classified  as  subcortical  motor  aphasia,  or  aphemia. 
Stammering  has  rarely  been  studied  as  an  aphasic 
disturbance.  Indeed,  the  objective  study  of  stam- 
mering has  in  general  led  to  negative  results.  The 
symptoms  are  variable,  and  there  is  usually  an  absence 
of  cerebral  lesion;  thus  the  pathologist  finds  few 
clews  whereon  to  base  his  classification.  A  few  cases 
of  stammering  have  been  recorded  in  which  cerebral 
lesions  were  present,^  but  these  lesions  have  usually 
been  sufficiently  extensive  to  be  lacking  in  significance. 
Furthermore,  in  such  cases  the  stammering  is  a  col- 
lateral disturbance,  the  major  defect  being  really  a  form 
of  aphemia.  The  patient  stammers  in  his  attempt  to 
speak,  but  he  stammers  on  all  words  impartially ;  he 
uses  inappropriate  consonants  as  well  as  vowels,  and 
his  speech  is  more  or  less  an  incomprehensible  jargon. 
These  cases  cannot  be  considered  as  forms  of  true  stam- 
mering, and  no  valid  deductions  can  be  made  from 
them. 

Stammering  resembles  aphasia  in  its  mode  of  origin. 
Broadly,  it  may  be  stated  that  any  cause  that  induces 
aphasia  can  also  induce  stammering.  Most  of  the 
causes  that  occasion  stammering  can  also  produce 
aphasia.  (The  two  causes  of  stammering  that  do  not 
produce  aphasia  are  association  and  imitation. 
Stammering  arising  from  these  causes  is  not   of  the 

^  See  Kussmaul,  "Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed,,  p.  161  and 
pp.  318  ff. 


2o8       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

amnesic  form ;  it  will  be  considered  in  a  later  part  of 
the  chapter.)  The  causes  of  stammering,  as  given 
by  Ssikorski/  are  —  emotional  shock,  traumata,  in- 
fectious diseases,  cachexia,  convulsions  (and  imita- 
tion). These  same  causes,  it  will  be  seen,  are  among 
the  most  proHfic  causes  of  aphasia. 

Transitory  stammering  frequently  occurs,  and  its 
causes  are  similar  to  those  inducing  transitory  aphasia. 
Some  of  these  causes  cited  by  Kussmaul  ^  are  — 
mental  strain  from  overwork,  lack  of  sleep,  the  smok- 
ing of  too  strong  tobacco,  intoxication,  epileptic  fits, 
indigestion,  acute  infectious  diseases,  etc.  Temporary 
aphasia  or  stammering  often  occurs  during  febrile 
illnesses,  disappearing  as  soon  as  the  fever  subsides. 
Stammering  often  occurs  as  the  result  of  anaemia 
following  severe  illnesses.  When  the  anaemia  is  acute, 
after  loss  of  blood  from  injuries,  for  instance,  com- 
plete aphasia  often  results. 

Stammering  sometimes  begins  as  aphasia. 

"H.  Schmidt  records  a  case  in  which  a  hussar  was  kicked 
by  a  horse  on  the  left  side  of  the  forehead,  and  suffered  as  a 
consequence  from  aphasia,  deafness  in  the  left  ear,  and  paralysis 
of  the  right  arm.  Gradually  the  aphasia  disappeared  and 
stammering  took  its  place.  After  four  weeks  his  full  vocabu- 
lary returned,  but  the  stammering  persisted."  ^ 

1  "Ueber  das  Stottern,"  pp.  232  S. 

2  "  Storungen  der  Sprache,"  4th  ed.,  p.  247, 

'  H.  Gutzmann,  "  Sprachheilkunde,"  2d  ed.,  p.  381. 


STAMMERING  209 

Many  such  cases  are  on  record  in  which  stammering 
has  begun  as  aphasia. 

Stammering,  like  aphasia,  often  begins  with  a  period 
of  complete  mutism,  and  is  often  preceded  by  a  period 
of  unconsciousness.  Ssikorski  ^  observed  twenty- 
seven  cases  of  stammering  due  to  emotional  shock, 
and  six  of  these  were  introduced  by  mutism.  The 
duration  of  the  mutism  varied  from  a  few  hours  to 
six  months.  Four  of  these  twenty-seven  cases  began 
with  loss  of  consciousness. 

Stammering  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  temporary 
mutism,  and  the  defect  is  not  necessarily  stammering 
speech.  (See  p.  344;  also  H.  Gutzmann,  "Sprach- 
heilkunde,"  2d  ed.,  p.  419.) 

"There  are  stammerers  that  never  stumble  in  speech,  but 
that  stammer,  nevertheless.  This  sounds  paradoxical,  but  is 
none  the  less  a  fact."  ^ 

Stammering  varies  in  severity  with  the  tone  of 
the  nervous  system ;  the  same  thing  is  often  true  of 
aphasia.  Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  all 
degrees  of  stammering,  which  range  from  a  sHght  hes- 
itancy in  speech  to  an  impairment  of  utterance  that 

1  "Ueber  das  Stottern,"  p.  232. 

2H.  Gutzmann,  "Sprachheilkunde,"  2d  ed.,  p.  408.  Gutzmann 
believes  these  subjects  to  be  breath-stammerers.  It  seems  more 
probable  that  the  subjects  simply  experience  amnesia,  and  suppress 
the  physical  contortions  of  the  average  stammerer.  See  p.  312  for 
explanation  of  common  breath-stammering. 


210       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

imquestionally  is  aphasia.     Speaking  of  severe  forms 
of  stammering,  Liebmann  says :  ^ 

"The  worst  cases  are  those  in  which  the  speech-disturbance 
approximates  a  form  of  dumbness.  I  have  seen  stammerers 
that  were  unable  to  utter  a  word  for  weeks,  and  this,  too,  in  sur- 
roundings so  favorable  as  the  stammerer's  own  home." 

Speech-disturbances  of  such  severity  can  scarcely 
be  regarded  as  stammering :   they  are  aphasia. 

One  of  the  strange  features  of  stammering  is  that  it 
occurs  with  far  greater  frequency  in  the  male  than  in 
the  female  sex.  There  are  four  or  five  male  stam- 
merers to  every  female  stammerer.  The  chief  reason 
for  this  disproportion  is  probably  the  greater  varia- 
bility of  the  male  sex;  the  explanation  is  thus  pri- 
marily biological.  In  most  respects  the  male  shows 
a  greater  variability  from  the  norm.  Color-blindness 
occurs  in  approximately  one  man  in  every  twenty, 
but  in  only  one  woman  in  two  hundred.  The  male 
sex  supplies  both  the  geniuses  and  the  idiots  of 
the  race.  Mentally,  females  vary  little,  and  any 
extreme  variation  from  the  norm  is  seldom  witnessed. 
Deaf -mutism  is  more  common  among  males  and  so 
also  is  aphasia.  In  reply  to  an  inquiry  from  the 
writer,  Dr.  Wyllie  says : 

"My  impression  is  that  aphasia  is  decidedly  more  common 
in  the  male  than  in  the  female  sex." 

1  "Stottern  und  Stammeln,"  p.  46. 


STAMMERING  21 1 

Dr.  Joseph  Collins  reports  similarly  : 

"Aphasia  when  not  due  to  traumatism  is  much  more  com- 
mon in  the  males  than  in  the  females,  the  report  being  that  the 
underlying  pathological  condition,  namely,  the  various  forms  of 
cerebral  softening,^  are  much  more  common  in  males  than  in 
females." 

When  cases  of  aphasia  due  to  traumata  are  included, 
the  proportion  of  aphasia  among  males  is  still  greater, 
for  they  are  more  exposed  to  physical  injury. 

Dr.  Bastian's  monograph,  "Aphasia  and  Other 
Speech  Defects,"  contains  reports  of  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  cases  of  aphasia.  Of  these  cases,  seventy- 
one  occur  in  males  and  forty-three  in  females.  The 
cases  are,  of  course,  selected  to  illustrate  different 
principles  and  not  to  demonstrate  the  proportion  in 
which  aphasia  occurs  in  the  sexes.  These  numbers 
may  or  may  not  represent  the  true  ratio  that  exists, 
but  they  certainly  indicate  that  aphasia  is  commoner 
among  males. 

Thus  stammering  and  aphasia  resemble  each  other 
in  the  fact  that  they  both  occur  more  frequently  in 
the  male  sex ;  and  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  this  we 
may  consider  to  be  the  male's  greater  variabihty. 
There  is  perhaps  another  reason  why  females  stammer 
less  frequently,  and  this  is  that  their  auditory  imagery 

^  "It  is  known  that  males  are  more  subject  to  brain  tumor  than 
females." — M.  Allen  Starr,  "Organic  and  Functional  Nervous  Dis- 
eases," 2d  ed.,  p.  574. 


212        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

is  probably  more  intense.  Galton  has  shown  by  sta- 
tistical inquiries  that  visual  imagery  is  stronger  in 
women  than  in  men.  The  auditory  images  are  prob- 
ably clearer  also.  Certainly  girls  talk  at  an  earlier 
age  than  boys;  and  conversableness  is,  in  general, 
greater  in  the  female  sex.  These  facts  indicate  a  more 
intense  verbal  imagery.  If  the  auditory  imagery  is 
more  intense,  a  minor  functional  derangement  would 
be  less  hkely  to  obKterate  or  obscure  it ;  and  hence 
would  be  less  likely  to  induce  stammering.  This 
fact  itself  would  be  sufficient  to  account  for  the  less 
frequent  occurrence  of  stammering  among  women. 

Another  point  of  resemblance  between  stammering 
and  aphasia  is  furnished  by  the  stammerer's  occasional 
ability  to  read  with  fluency.  This  abihty  of  the 
stammerer  has  been  noted  by  most  writers  on  the 
subject.     Liebmann  remarks  that :  ^ 

"Some  stammerers  read  much  more  fluently  than  they 
speak." 

Another  writer  says :  ^ 

"There  are  many  confirmed  stammerers  and  stutterers  who 
read  aloud  without  impediment." 

The  similar  ability  of  some  aphasic  patients  to  read 
with  fluency  has  already  been  observed  (pp.  170-174), 
and  the  probable  cause  for  it  explained. 

1  "Vorlesungen  tiber  Sprachstorungen,"  i.  Heft,  p.  11. 

'  George  Vandenhoff,  Homoiopathic  Times,  New  York,  May,  1877. 


STAMMERING  213 

The  interjectional  speech  of  the  stammerer  is  often 
free  from  impediment. 

"It  is  well  known  that  when  stammerers  are  roused  by  in- 
dignation, a  sense  of  wrong,  etc.,  they  are  frequently  released 
from  their  infirmity,  or  at  least  the  latter  is  considerably  dimin- 
ished." 1 

It  will  be  remembered  that  a  similar  fluency  of 
speech  mider  the  influence  of  emotional  excitement 
is  often  evinced  by  aphasic  patients  (pp.  174-175  and 
p.  124) ;  hence  we  have  another  point  of  resemblance 
between  stammering  and  aphasia. 

We  shall  consider  now  a  case  of  aphasia  that  bears 
in  many  points  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  stam- 
mering. The  speech-disturbance  was  more  severe 
than  that  occurring  in  ordinary  stammering,  being 
apparently  due  to  an  organic  lesion.  There  was 
mute-aphasia  for  several  months;  but  when  speech 
returned,  many  of  the  characteristic  features  of 
stammering  were  present.  The  case  is  recorded  by 
Bastian :  ^ 

"W.  D.,  aged  20,  was  seen  by  me  in  September,  1885,  in 
consultation  with  Dr.  W.  A.  Phillips. 

"He  left  England  in  good  health  in  October,  1884,  for  a  tem- 
porary residence  in  Calcutta.  After  his  arrival  he  soon  com- 
menced some  light  duties  in  a  merchant's  office  and  continued 
well  till  the  beginning  of  the  month  of  May,  1885.     During  the 

^  Hunt,  "Stammering  and  Stuttering,"  7th  ed.,  p.  269. 
2  "Aphasia  and  Other  Speech  Defects,"  pp.  73  ff. 


214       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

first  three  weeks  of  that  month  he  suffered  from  a  general  erup- 
tion of  boils.  On  May  25,  a  very  hot  day,  he  went  to  see  a 
military  review,  and  early  in  the  evening  did  not  feel  well. 
It  was  thought  he  had  been  sHghtly  affected  by  the  heat ;  the 
next  morning  he  complained  of  pain  in  the  back  and  left  side 
of  his  head.  He  had  to  leave  the  office  about  mid-day,  not 
feeling  well,  and  the  same  thing  occurred  on  the  following  day. 
There  was  no  actual  sickness  and  fever,  but  he  remained 
rather  unwell,  keeping  either  to  his  bed  or  sofa  till  Jime  3,  when 
he  went  for  a  short  sea  voyage  to  Madras  and  back. 

"He  returned  to  Calcutta  on  June  21,  and  while  at  dinner 
on  that  day  suddenly  became  very  excited  and  boisterous,  and 
had  a  convulsive  attack  of  some  kind  (no  details  as  to  its 
nature  could  be  ascertained).  For  about  a  week  after  this  he 
was  at  times  odd  in  manner,  sometimes  muttering  to  himself, 
at  others  taciturn,  with  occasional  twitchings  of  the  muscles 
about  the  face  and  shoulders.  Then  one  day  he  suddenly  lost 
his  speech,  though  his  intelUgence  was  unaffected.  He  under- 
stood what  was  spoken  or  written,  and  could  himself  write 
freely  to  express  his  wishes  or  in  reply  to  questions. 

"Nine  weeks  after  this,  having  been  completely  dumb  in 
the  interval,  he  was  first  brought  to  me,  on  September  4,  1885, 
and  he  was  then  in  the  following  condition.  He  was  perfectly 
intelligent,  understood  readily  all  questions  that  were  put  to 
him,  and  wrote  his  answers  freely  and  without  any  hesitation 
or  mistake.  He  could  move  his  tongue  and  lips  in  all  direc- 
tions, but  could  not  utter  a  sound.  The  tongue  came  out 
straight.  During  the  previous  ten  days  (since  his  return  to 
this  country)  he  had  suffered  a  good  deal  from  pains  in  the 
left  parietal  and  occipital  region,  and  on  two  occasions  had 
twitchings  on  the  left  side  of  the  face.  When  seen,  on  tapping 
the  head  over  the  left  posterior  parietal  region,  there  seemed 
to  be  tenderness.     There  was  no  lack  of  symmetry  or  mobihty 


STAMMERING  215 

about  the  face.  The  pupils  were  equal,  of  medium  size,  and 
sensitive  to  Hght.  The  optic  disks  presented  nothing  distinctly 
unnatural.  There  was  some  paresis  of  both  upper  extremities, 
though  this  was  most  marked  on  the  right  side;  his  grip,  as 
measured  by  the  dynamometer,  being  right  35,  and  left  47 
pounds.  Some  distinct  tremors  of  the  right  arm  were  noticed 
while  the  instrument  was  being  pressed  with  the  left  hand. 
The  knee-jerk  on  the  right  side  was  distinctly  exaggerated, 
both  actually  and  as  compared  with  that  of  the  left  side.  There 
was  no  lack  of  sensibiHty  on  either  side  of  the  face,  trunk,  or 
limbs.     Pulse  100,  regular;  no  cardiac  bruit. 

"September  9.  A  small  bhster  to  the  nucha  having  been 
ordered  for  the  relief  of  the  pains  in  the  head,  just  after  its 
removal,  on  September  7,  the  patient  had  a  convulsive  attack. 
He  became  rigid,  made  a  guttural  sound,  had  some  slight  con- 
vulsions of  limbs,  and  remained  unconscious  five  to  ten  minutes. 
Pulse  to-day  104,  regular.  Tongue  protruded  straight,  but 
covered  with  white  fur  on  the  right  side,  tremulous. 

''September  14.  Pain  in  head  now  gone;  no  tenderness 
on  left  side;  bears  tapping  there  wdthout  flinching.  Right 
knee-jerk  still  exaggerated. 

"The  patient  after  this  date  went  to  his  home  in  the  country 
for  six  weeks,  where  he  took  six  grains  of  iodide  of  potassium 
with  three  minims  of  liquor  arsenicalis  three  times  a  day,  and 
also  a  draught  containing  twenty  grains  of  bromide  of  potas- 
sium every  night. 

"November  26.  During  the  first  three  weeks  after  his 
return  the  patient  had  seven  fits,  but  none  since  that  period. 
The  total  duration  of  each  fit  with  subsequent  stupor  was  said 
to  be  thirty  to  ninety  minutes.  As  far  as  I  could  learn,  the 
attacks  were  bilateral,  associated  with  rigidity  of  limbs,  or 
rigidity  and  tremors,  rather  than  with  actual  convulsions, 
though  sometimes  these  supervened  towards  the  close.     No 


2i6        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

headache  now ;  this  disappeared  soon  after  return.  No  twitch- 
ings  of  face.  Pupils  equal,  rather  sluggish  to  light.  No  devia- 
tion of  tongue  or  lack  of  symmetry  about  face.  No  tenderness 
to  percussion  any\\'here  over  head.  Knee-jerks  now  equal, 
no  exaggeration  on  right.  Can  walk  ten  miles  without  fatigue. 
Grip  much  improved,  but  still  weaker  on  right;  right  70, 
left  93  pounds.  Optic  disks  healthy.  Pulse  84,  regular.  There 
was  no  improvement,  however,  in  regard  to  speech ;  I  tried  in 
vain  to  make  him  utter  simple  sounds,  even  after  faradisation 
of  throat  and  assuring  him  that  he  would  then  probably  be 
able  to  speak. 

"December  2.  Writes  that  yesterday  he  repeated  to  him- 
self the  whole  of  the  vowel  soimds,  and  also  about  twenty 
monosyllabic  words  of  three  letters. 

"December  4.  Had  a  fit  on  the  2nd  whilst  at  the  dentist's, 
just  as  he  was  beginning  to  inhale  laughing  gas.  I  tried  to 
induce  him  to  read  to  me  from  a  'school  primer.'  He  sat  gazing 
at  the  book  for  several  minutes,  some  tremors  and  slight  twitch- 
ings  of  the  facial  muscles  occurring  while  the  efforts  were  being 
made.  At  last  he  uttered  two  or  three  monosyllables  in  an 
explosive  fashion,  at  first  very  indistinctly  in  a  sort  of  loud 
whisper,  but  afterwards  others  more  plainly  and  at  short  inter- 
vals, not  in  quick  succession.  Thus,  he  uttered  'cup,'  'boy,' 
'hat,'  'hog,'  and  afterwards  read  more  currently  these  words: 
'Let  us  go  to  the  cow.' 

"December  8.  In  the  interval  he  has  been  practising  read- 
ing aloud,  mostly  when  alone.  I  now  made  him  try  again  to 
read  to  me,  and  made  this  note :  '  He  sits  gazing  at  the  book, 
with  his  hands  between  me  and  the  upper  part  of  his  face; 
but  I  can  see  his  mouth  plainly.  His  lips  move,  his  breathing 
is  irregular,  and  he  seems  to  be  making  efforts  to  pronounce  the 
words  he  sees ;  but  no  sound  comes  till  the  expiration  of  four 
and  three-quarter  minutes,  when  he  said  two  words  in  a  quick, 


STAMMERING  217 

explosive  manner,  followed  at  intervals  of  about  a  quarter  of  a 
minute  by  two  or  three  more  words,  and  so  on  through  a  page 
of  Bell  and  Sons'  "  School  Primer  "  composed  of  short  monosyl- 
labic words.  Afterwards  he  tried  to  read  another  page  more 
continuously.  This  was  done  rather  better,  but  was  accom- 
panied by  much  working  of  facial  muscles  and  apparent  effort. 
His  voice  was  cracked  and  squeaking  in  character.' 

"December  15.  Previously  I  had  never  been  able  to  get 
him  to  repeat  any  words  after  me,  nor  to  utter  any  words  except 
what  he  read  in  the  book  as  above  described ;  but  this  morning 
he  repeated  after  me  the  following  phrases :  '  Good  morning ' ; 
*  It  is  a  foggy  day ' ;  'If  I  go  on  like  this,  I  shall  soon  go  home.' 
Each  of  these  phrases  was  uttered  after  a  moment  or  two  of 
delay,  with  facial  quiverings,  and  then  sudden  commencement 
after  the  fashion  of  a  stutterer. 

"December  30.  He  has  not  spoken  to  any  one  at  home,  but 
he  reads  better  and  with  less  delay.  Has  been  reading  to  his 
sister  and  his  mother.    Reads  more  distinctly  to  me  also. 

"January  15,  1886.  Hesitates  and  makes  abortive  stutter- 
ing efforts  for  three  seconds  before  he  can  say  '  Good  morning,' 
and  finally  utters  it  very  imperfectly.  When  set  to  read  from 
the  '  School  Primer '  he  began  after  one  minute  to  read  in  a  very- 
weak,  cracky  voice.  He  read  a  page  in  an  indistinct  and  very 
hesitating  manner.  Writes  that  he  reads  to  himself  daily,  and 
speaks  to  himself  when  he  is  alone.  When  told  to  utter  his  own 
name,  'William,'  he  only  pronounces  it,  after  several  abortive 
trials,  in  a  very  indistinct  manner.  Has  no  pain ;  sleeps  well ; 
appetite  good.     Grip  right  77,  left  77  lbs. 

"February  15.  He  went  on  fairly  well  till  February  4, 
though  for  some  days  previously,  his  sister  informed  me,  he 
had  not  'seemed  quite  himself  —  in  fact,  from  the  date  when 
his  father  (thinking  he  was  so  much  better)  gave  him,  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  own  wishes,  some  work  to  do,  in  the  form  of 


2i8        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

accounts  and  writing,  in  connection  with  his  country  estate. 
About  7.15  P.M.  on  February  4,  he  was  found  by  his  sister  in 
a  room  alone  and  unconscious  in  an  armchair.  He  had  not 
been  in  this  room  more  than  about  fifteen  minutes  when  he 
was  thus  found.  He  remained  unconscious  rather  over  an 
hour,  having  from  time  to  time  tremors  over  the  whole  of 
the  body,  the  right  leg  being  extended,  stiff,  and  with  the  toes 
turned  inwards.  The  right  arm  was  also  stiff,  but  in  a  flexed 
condition.  His  face  was  dusky.  Five  days  afterwards  he 
had  another  sHght  attack,  a  'sort  of  fainting  fit.'  When  over- 
tired since,  some  twitchings  have  been  noticed  in  the  right 
limbs.  He  has  had  no  practice  in  reading  or  speaking  since 
the  fit,  and  has  been  more  listless  in  manner.  Previously 
he  had  been  making  some  progress.  He  told  me  in  writing 
that,  after  commencing  the  work  for  his  father,  he  began  to 
have  pains  in  the  left  side  of  his  head  again,  though  these 
pains  were  not  worse  on  the  day  of  the  fit,  nor  had  he  been 
over-fatigued  on  that  day.  He  also  said  he  had-not  been  sleep- 
ing well  for  two  or  three  nights  before  the  fit,  having  a  few  days 
previously  left  off  a  bromide  draught  which  he  had  hitherto 
been  taking  every  night. 

"I  did  not  see  him  again  till  October  9,  when  he  was  brought 
to  me  by  his  mother.  I  learned  that  from  early  in  June  to  the 
middle  of  August  he  went  away  alone  to  a  village  in  Derby- 
shire, and  lived  at  an  inn  there.  One  of  his  sisters  then  went 
to  stay  with  him,  and  found  him  somewhat  better.  He  had 
been  at  home  for  three  weeks,  and  during  this  time  has  been 
communicating  with  his  mother  orally,  not  having  occasion  to 
resort  to  writing  once.     He  has  also  been  reading  aloud  daily. 

"On  examination,  I  entered  the  following  particulars  in  my 
case  book :  He  complained  of  no  pains  in  his  head,  and  has 
no  local  tenderness.  Appetite  good;  sleeps  well.  Pulse  88, 
regular ;  pupils  equal  and  fairly  sensitive ;  face  quite  symmet- 


STAMMERING  219 

rical;  tongue  protruded  straight;  grip,  right  90,  left  117. 
Knee-jerks  slight,  equal;  no  ankle  clonus  on  either  side.  He 
reads  aloud  much  better  than  he  did;  begins  without  delay, 
but  reads  with  a  weak,  rather  cracky  voice,  and  with  much  ap- 
parent effort  and  facial  contortion  a  page  from  Humphry's 
essay  on  'Old  Age,'  the  monosyllables  of  the  school  primer 
being  discarded.  He  speaks,  too,  in  reply  to  questions,  though 
much  more  slowly  and  indistinctly  than  he  should  do.  His 
voice  is  husky;  he  articulates  with  much  effort  and  facial 
contortion,  and  after  an  explosive  fashion,  somewhat  like  that 
of  a  bad  stutterer.  He  was  directed  to  practice  reading  several 
times  daily,  uttering  each  word  as  distinctly  as  possible,  and 
also  to  resume  doing  some  work  for  his  father  in  connection 
with  his  farm. 

"After  this  I  heard  nothing  till  February  28,  1887,  when  I 
received  a  letter  from  Dr.  Phillips,  in  which  he  says  in  reference 
to  our  patient,  'he  has  now  quite  recovered  his  lost  faculty, 
and  is  occupied  in  business  in  London.  This  result  was  not 
in  any  way  sudden,  but  came  about  slowly  and  by  continued 
effort  and  tuition.'  In  short,  he  went  on  slowly  but  steadily 
improving  from  the  time  I  saw  him  last  till  he  was  sufficiently 
well  to  enter  his  father's  office  in  London." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  aphasia  in  this  case 
bears  many  remarkable  points  of  resemblance  to 
stammering.  In  fact,  at  the  time  the  patient  was  re- 
acquiring command  of  language,  the  defect  seems  to 
have  been  stammering  pure  and  simple.  At  a  time 
when  the  patient  had  practically  no  command  of 
spontaneous  speech  he  was  able  to  read  and  repeat 
with  a  fair  degree  of  fluency.  Again,  the  speech- 
disturbance  began  with  complete  dumbness,  a  symp- 


220        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

torn  that  often  accompanies  the  inception  of  stam- 
mering. 

The  patient's  ability  to  repeat  suggests  that  the 
cerebral  defect  was  some  minor  disturbance  in  the 
auditory  centre.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  was 
pain  in  the  left  parietal  and  occipital  regions.  Since 
the  auditory  centre  Hes  conterminous  to  both  these 
regions,  it  is  quite  likely  that  this  centre  was  affected. 
A  lowered  activity  of  the  auditory  centre  would  en- 
tail difficulty  in  arousing  the  auditory  images,  and 
hence  would  induce  stammering.  It  is  stated  that 
the  patient  spoke  "with  much  effort  and  facial  con- 
tortion, and  after  an  explosive  fashion,  somewhat  hke 
that  of  a  bad  stutterer." 

The  patient's  dumbness  suggests  that  the  cerebral 
disturbance  originally  extended  into  the  motor  region. 
Motor  disturbances  are  Hkewise  indicated  by  the 
facial  twitchings  and  the  weakness  of  the  right  arm. 
These  conditions  had  practically  disappeared,  however, 
before  the  mutism  vanished. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  this  case  was  the  pa- 
tient's ability  to  speak  in  solitude  at  a  time  when  he 
could  not  speak  to  other  people.  In  a  footnote 
appended  to  the  report  of  December  8,  Bastian  says : 

"About  this  time,  when  he  told  me  he  had  been  repeating  the 
vowel  sounds  to  himself,  I  said  he  should  repeat  them  to  some 
one  else,  and  he  at  once  wrote  :  *  That  is  the  difficulty.  It  seems 
so  stupid.     I  can  do  it  when  I  am  alone,  but  not  to  any  one.' " 


STAMMERING  221 

It  is  chiefly  on  account  of  this  feature  that  the 
case  has  been  cited.  The  abiHty  to  speak  well  in 
solitude  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  most  cases  of 
stammering.  From  the  nature  of  the  phenomenon 
it  is  usually  supposed  to  be  dependent  upon  purely 
psychological  causes.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there 
are  physiological  causes  that  probably  underHe  the 
psychological.  During  intellectual  activity  there  is 
a  great  increase  in  the  amount  of  blood  suppHed  to 
the  brain.  During  emotional  activity  the  amount  is 
even  greater.  When  abnormal  pathological  condi- 
tions exist  in  the  cerebrum,  this  increased  blood-supply 
probably  interferes  directly  with  consciousness. 

Mosso  has  made  a  thorough  investigation  of  the 
cerebral  blood-supply  during  intellectual  activity, 
em.otion,  and  sleep.  The  results  are  recorded  in  his 
monograph,  ''La  Paura."  ^ 

In  one  experiment  he  employed  a  delicately  balanced 
table,  on  which  his  subjects  were  placed.  So  fine 
an  adjustment  could  be  secured  that  the  table 
would  vacillate  with  the  subject's  breathing.  Mosso 
affirms  that  the  head-end  of  the  table  would  descend 
if  the  subject  became  engaged  in  intellectual  activity^ 
or  if  he  even  endeavored  to  fix  his  attention  upon  an 
object.     If  the  subject  fell  asleep,  the  table  had  to  be 

^  The  excerpts  quoted  in  this  work  are  taken  from  the  German 
translation,  "Die  Furcht."  There  is  also  an  English  translation, 
"Fear." 


222        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

readjusted  on  account  of  the  recession  of  blood  from 
the  brain.  When  the  subject  awoke,  there  was  so 
great  an  afflux  of  blood  to  the  brain  that  the  head  re- 
mained lowered  if  the  balance  were  not  reestabhshed. 

Mosso  showed  by  means  of  his  plethysmograph  that 
the  volume  of  the  arms  diminishes  during  intellectual 
activity.  This  shrinkage  of  the  arms  is  due  to  the 
transference  of  blood  from  the  body  to  the  brain. 
The  shrinkage  is,  of  course,  general  throughout  the 
body.^  In  these  experiments  it  was  found  that  seem- 
ingly insignificant  causes  —  the  entrance  of  a  person 
into  the  room,  for  instance  —  at  once  produced  a 
shrinkage  of  the  arms,  which  the  instrument  auto- 
matically recorded  by  means  of  tracings. 

Mosso  made  similar  tracings  from  the  pulsations, 
of  the  heart.  As  one  would  expect,  there  was  an 
acceleration  of  the  heart  correlated  with  the  change  in 
circulation  and  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The  heart 
beat  much  more  violently  during  emotional  disturb- 
ances.    Further  experiments  showed  that  respiration 

^Thus  Leonard  Hill  in  his  "Cerebral  Circulation"  (p.  74)  :  "An 
anaemia  of  the  central  nervous  system  excites  the  vaso-motor  centre, 
and  if  the  splanchnic  vessels  constrict,  the  blood  pressure  rises  and 
more  blood  is  driven  through  the  brain.  The  same  result  is  pro- 
duced by  asphyxia.  We  have  in  the  vaso-motor  centre  a  protective 
mechanism  by  which  blood  can  be  drawn  at  need  from  the  abdomen 
and  supplied  to  the  brain.  At  the  moment  that  excitement  from 
the  outside  world  demands  cerebral  response,  the  splanchnic  area 
constricts  and  more  blood  is  driven  through  the  brain." 


STAMMERING  223 

was  also  accelerated  by  emotion.  The  greater  fre- 
quency of  respiration  is  probably  a  secondary  phe- 
nomenon. When  the  blood  flows  faster,  more  rapid 
breathing  is  required  for  its  oxygenation. 

In  another  experiment,  performed  on  three  subjects 
whose  brains  had  been  laid  bare  by  lesions  of  the  skull, 
Mosso  recorded  the  brain-pulse  directly  by  tracings. 
The  investigations  showed  that  the  sHghtest  intel- 
lectual activity  was  accompanied  by  an  increase  in 
the  blood-supply  to  the  brain.  The  brain  actually 
increased  in  volume,  and  its  pulsations  became  more 
vigorous.  One  day,  while  experimenting  with  his 
female  subject,  he  noticed  a  sudden  strengthening  of 
the  brain-pulse  and  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  the 
brain  for  which  he  could  detect  no  reason.  Upon 
questioning  the  subject  he  ascertained  that  she  had 
caught  sight  of  a  skull  on  the  top  of  a  cupboard,  and 
that  this  had  induced  a  sHght  fear  in  her  by  reminding 
her  of  her  illness. 

Mosso  made  tracings  of  the  brain-pulse  during 
sleep.  For  long  periods  the  pulse  would  remain  reg- 
ular but  weak.  Suddenly  there  would  occur  an 
increased  vigor  in  the  pulsations  and  a  dilation  of  the 
brain,  indicating,  beyond  doubt,  the  occurrence  of 
a  dream.  After  a  few  fluctuations  the  disturbance 
would  subside,  and  the  brain  would  shrink  again  to 
its  normal  condition  for  sleep.  During  these  ex- 
periments, if  the  least  noise  occurred  or  if  a  Ught  were 


224        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

brought  near  the  subject,  there  followed  the  same 
increased  vigor  of  the  brain-pulse.  Calling  the  sub- 
ject by  name  produced  more  violent  disturbances, 
but  these  likewise  subsided  if  the  subject  were  not 
awakened.  But  if  the  subject  were  shaken  so  that 
he  gradually  awoke,  there  occurred  the  characteristic 
expansion  of  the  brain  and  increased  vigor  in  its 
pulsations.  As  the  subject  fell  asleep  again,  the  brain 
decreased  in  size  and  the  pulsations  again  became 
weaker  and  more  rhythmical. 

With  regard  to  emotion  Mosso  says :  ^ 

"However,  the  changes  in  cerebral  circulation  produced 
by  fear  are  far  greater.  The  reprimands  and  threats  that  I 
cast  at  Bertino  [the  subject],  when  by  moving  his  head  or  hands 
he  interfered  with  the  experiment,  and  the  disagreeable  things 
that  I  occasionally  said  with  intention,  invariably  produced  a 
vigorous  brain-pulse.  The  pulsations  became  six  or  seven 
times  greater  than  before,  the  blood-vessels  expanded,  and  the 
brain  swelled  and  beat  with  such  vigor  that  my  colleagues 
stared  with  astonishment  at  the  photogram  of  the  tracings." 

From  these  facts  it  should  be  evident  that  there  is 
really  nothing  remarkable  in  the  abihty  of  a  stammerer 
or  a  mildly  aphasic  patient  to  speak  when  alone, 
though  he  may  be  unable  to  speak  in  the  presence  of 
other  people.  The  mere  presence  of  another  person, 
and  the  greater  effort  of  attention  required  for  con- 
versation, causes  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain ; 

1  "Die  Furcht,"  p.  73. 


STAMMERING  225 

and  this,  on  account  of  existing  abnormal  cerebral 
conditions,  induces  auditory  amnesia.  It  is  a  note- 
worthy fact  that  auditory  images  frequently  occur 
during  sleep  with  persons  that  have  no  auditory 
imagery  during  the  waking  state.  This  fact  suggests 
that  the  greater  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain  during 
the  waking  state  results  in  a  lowering  of  the  activity 
of  the  auditory  centre.  When  the  imagery  is  fuga- 
cious during  the  waking  state,  it  is  probably  expunged 
by  the  cerebral  plethora  attendant  upon  increased 
intellectual  activity. 

Temporary  cerebral  hyperaemia  is  probably  the 
cause  of  stammering  in  many  cases  where  no  organic 
lesion  exists.  The  cortex  of  the  brain  has  an  extremely 
rich  blood-supply;  and  any  disturbance  in  the  cere- 
bral vascular  system  at  once  reflects  itself  in  conscious- 
ness. When  the  vessels  become  unduly  distended, 
auditory  imagery  is  doubtless  inhibited,  and  stammer- 
ing results.  If  a  mild  organic  lesion  should  exist,  the 
cerebral  congestion  would  aggravate  the  condition  and 
thus  produce  disturbances  in  consciousness.  Hence  it 
is  possible  for  amnesia  to  supervene  only  when  men- 
tal activity  exceeds  a  certain  point.  During  mental 
repose  —  when  the  person  is  alone,  for  instance  —  no 
disturbance  in  speech  appears. 

The  mental  imagery  is  most  likely  to  be  obscured 
when  the  subject  is  affected  by  intense  emotion. 
Under  these  conditions  cerebral  congestion  is  greatest. 


226        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

When  temporary  stammering  or  aphasia  is  induced 
by  stage  fright  or  other  emotions,  it  is  probably  due 
to  the  excessive  distension  of  the  cerebral  vessels. 
The  subjective  condition  is  one  of  mental  cataplexy. 
When  speech-defects  are  originally  induced  by  emo- 
tional shock,  there  is  probably  a  rupture  of  some 
of  the  finer  vessels  in  the  cortex.^  Rupture  of  the 
larger  vessels  results  in  paralysis  or  death.  This  rup- 
ture of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain  is  known  as 
cerebral  apoplexy. 

Disturbances  in  consciousness  are  produced  by  any 
abnormal  condition  in  the  cerebral  blood-supply. 
Cerebral  anaemia  is  just  as  pernicious  as  cerebral 
hyperaemia.  In  a  person  suffering  from  anaemia, 
aphasia  or  stammering  may  occur  because  the  blood- 
supply  to  the  brain  is  deficient.  A  stoppage  in  one 
of  the  cerebral  vessels  will  often  cause  aphasia  by 
inducing  ischaemia,  or  local  anaemia. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  pages  that  stam- 
mering and  aphasia  are  allied  in  a  great  many  respects. 
They  are  induced  by  the  same  causes.  They  mani- 
fest many  of  the  same  symptoms  —  the  occasional 
abihty  of  the  subject  to  read  fluently,  to  speak  well 
when  alone,  to  speak  fluently  imder  the  influence  of 

1  Ssikorski  finds  that  emotional  shock  is  responsible  for  stammer- 
ing in  practically  three  cases  out  of  four.  ("Ueber  das  Stottern," 
p.  232  and  p.  235.) 


STAMMERING  227 

sthenic  emotions,  etc.  They  are  both  more  common 
in  males  than  in  females.  And,  finally,  there  is  no 
strict  Hne  of  demarcation  between  them.  Stammer- 
ing often  begins  as  mute-aphasia,  and  it  is  often  suffi- 
ciently severe  at  all  periods  of  its  manifestation  to 
be  regarded  as  aphasia  pure  and  simple.  The  specific 
form  of  aphasia  to  which  stammering  is  allied  is 
auditory  amnesia,  or  auditory  aphasia.^  It  has  been 
demonstrated  in  numerous  ways  that  the  stammerer's 
difficulty  is  due  primarily  to  the  failure  of  the  audi- 
tory verbal  image,  his  difficulty  manifesting  itself 
on  that  part  of  the  word  that  cannot  be  readily  pro- 
duced kinaesthetically  —  i.e.  on  the  vowel.  When 
the  acoustic  image  is  subtile  and  indefinite,  he  has 
greater  difficulty  in  recalling  it.  Hence,  he  more 
frequently  stammers  on,  or  mispronounces,  the  short 
vowels.  When  the  auditory  image  is  definite  and 
tangible,  the  stammerer  can  more  readily  recall  it. 
Hence  he  stammers  httle  on  the  long  vowels  and  rarely 
hesitates  in  singing.  When  the  primary  auditory  im- 
age is  clear,  his  difficulty  vanishes.  Therefore  he 
repeats  readily,  and  speaks  fluently  in  unison  with 
other  persons. 

Thus  the  arguments  are  practically  conclusive  in 

support  of  the  thesis  that  stammering  is  a  form  of 

auditory  amnesia.     But  since  stammering  has  been 

regarded  by  most  investigators  as  some  obscure  and 

*  Amnesia  is  the  subjective  condition ;  aphasia  rather  the  objective. 


228        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

undiagnosable  form  of  subcortical  motor  aphasia,  or 
aphemia,  it  might  be  well  to  consider  the  arguments 
against  this  latter  theory. 

If  stammering  were  due  to  an  organic  lesion  in  the 
neural  mechanism  actuating  speech,  it  would  often 
be  accompanied  by  some  degree  of  hemiplegia.  How- 
ever, hemiplegia  is  almost  invariably  absent  in  stam- 
merers. Even  when  the  disorder  is  suddenly  induced 
by  emotional  shock,  there  is  usually  no  S3niiptom  of 
paralysis.  The  writer  has  seen  only  one  case  of 
stammering  (among  approximately  two  hundred)  in 
which  paresis  existed.  There  was  in  this  instance 
a  mild  paretic  condition  of  the  right  arm.  But  in  this 
case  the  speech-disorder  could  scarcely  be  classified 
as  stammering.  The  disturbance  was  of  a  motor 
nature.  There  seemed  to  be  difficulty  in  articulating 
the  consonants;  but  when  these  were  pronounced, 
the  vowels  were  readily  subjoined.  Speech  was 
lethargic  and  heavy,  and  it  had  few  of  the  usual 
characteristics  of  stammering. 

If  stammering  were  a  form  of  aphemia,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  effect  even  a  temporary  cure  by  elocu- 
tionary methods,  for  elocutionary  exercises  can  have 
practically  no  effect  upon  those  parts  of  the  brain 
that  do  not  subserve  consciousness.  Yet  more  or 
less  transitory  ^'cures''  are  effected  by  elocutionary 
training  in  a  few  instances.  The  explanation  for 
the  improvement  in   speech  is  probably    that   the 


STAMMERING  229 

vocal  exercises  effect  a  transitory  intensification  of  the 
auditory  imagery. 

The  supposition  that  stammering  is  a  form  of  aphe- 
mia  does  not  explain  the  stammerer's  greater  difiiculty 
with  the  short  vowels.  It  does  not  explain  his  ability 
to  repeat  and  his  abihty  to  sing.  To  generalize,  the 
theory  does  not  explain  the  stammerer's  abihty  to 
speak  when  he  has  a  clear  auditory  image  of  the  word 
he  wishes  to  utter.  One  might  explain  this  abihty 
on  the  supposition  that  the  stronger  impulsion  given  to 
the  efferent  current  by  a  clear  auditory  image  enables 
it  to  overcome  an  abnormal  resistance  in  the  motor 
cells  or  fibres.  But  even  when  this  supposition  is 
made,  the  cause  of  the  speech-defect  —  when  the 
subjective  aspect  is  considered  —  still  remains  the 
failure  (or  in  this  case  the  weakness)  of  the  auditory 
image.  But  the  assumption  that  there  exists  an 
undue  sluggishness  in  the  motor  mechanism  does  not 
explam  the  fact  that  the  stammerer  frequently  pro- 
duces a  wrong  vowel  after  his  struggles  to  articulate 
a  word,  and  the  fact  that  some  stammerers  experience 
difficulty  only  with  particular  vowels.  The  existence 
of  a  motor  defect  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that  the 
stammerer  has  difficulty  neither  in  articulation  nor  in 
phonation.  When  consonants  are  followed  by  long 
vowels  he  usually  produces  them  with  ease.  He 
never  stammers  on  the  consonants  at  the  end  of  a  word. 
He  has  no  difficulty  in  phonation,  for  he  often  vocaHzes 


230        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

continuously  on  the  continuous  sonant  consonants. 
If  the  difficulty  lies  neither  in  articulation  nor  phona- 
tion,  it  can  scarcely  be  due  to  a  motor  disturbance. 

Neither  can  there  be  a  defect  in  the  kinaesthetic 
verbal  memory-centre,  for  if  such  were  the  case, 
the  stammerer  would  have  as  much  difficulty  in  sing- 
ing as  in  speaking.  He  would  stammer  more  on  the 
consonants  than  on  the  vowels,  and  would  not  articu- 
late the  consonants  freely  —  as  he  does  in  stuttering 
and  many  forms  of  stammering.  In  many  cases  the 
stammerer  would  be  hemiplegic.  If  there  were  a  de- 
fect in  the  kinaesthetic  memory,  the  stammerer  would 
not  be  readily  affected  by  shght  differences  in  the 
tangibility  of  the  auditory  image,  and  would  not  repeat 
with  his  characteristic  ease.  —  One  might  suppose,  to 
explain  the  effect  of  tangibihty  in  the  auditory  image, 
that  the  stronger  sound-image  arouses  the  associated 
kinaesthetic  image  more  promptly.  If  the  kinaesthetic 
image  is  the  last  provocative  of  speech,  this  associa- 
tional  process  must  of  course  occur  invariably  in  the 
audito-moteur,  —  though  the  awakened  kinaesthetic 
image  does  not  come  to  the  foreground  of  conscious- 
ness, since  the  speaker  attends  to  the  auditory  and 
not  to  the  motor  image  of  the  vowel.  If  the  kin- 
aesthetic image  of  the  vowel-movements  were  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  appear  independently  in  conscious- 
ness, the  auditory  image  would  be  dispensable.  In 
a  sense,  then,  one  could  attribute  the  stammerer's 


STAMMERING  231 

difficulty  to  a  deficiency  in  his  kinaesthetic  imagery, 
but  this  is  only  saying  that  the  stammerer  is  an  audito- 
moteur  rather  than  an  articulo-moteur.  If  he  were 
an  articulo-moteur,  he  would  not  be  a  stammerer. 

There  are  cogent  arguments  against  the  existence 
of  a  lesion  in  the  fibres  uniting  the  auditory  and  kin- 
aesthetic  verbal  centres.  A  defect  in  either  set  of 
fibres  would  not  explain  the  stammerer's  greater 
difficulty  with  the  shorter  vowels.  It  would  not  ex- 
plain his  abihty  to  repeat,  to  sing,  and  to  read  aloud 
in  unison  with  others.  We  might  assume,  again, 
that  the  stronger  auditory  image  overcomes  an  ab- 
normal inertia,  but  we  should  still  have  to  explain 
the  fact  that  the  stammerer  often  produces  the  wrong 
vowel  and  the  fact  that  difficulty  occurs  in  some  cases 
only  with  vowels  of  a  particular  coloration.  The 
assumption,  moreover,  would  still  leave  the  subjective 
defect  a  failure  (or  weakness)  of  the  auditory  image. 
It  seems  clear  that  this  theory  of  the  failure  of  the 
auditory  image  is  the  only  one  that  satisfactorily  ex- 
plains all  the  phenomena  involved. 

It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  explain  the  fact  that  the 
auditory  faculties  are  particularly  vulnerable,  —  and 
more  Hable  to  derangement  than  the  motor  faculties, 
for  instance.  Hearing  is  one  of  the  distance-receptors, 
and  is  a  more  recent  acquisition  in  the  evolution  of 
the  human  race.  It  is  one  of  the  later  terms  in  evolu- 
tion, and  hence  is  one  of  the  earlier  terms  in  dis- 


.232        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

solution.  The  motor  faculty  is  phylogenetically  the 
oldest,  for  the  converting  of  a  sensory  stimulus  into 
a  motor  response  is  one  of  the  primordial  functions 
of  protoplasm.  This  motor  fimction  of  the  nervous 
organism  is  therefore  the  least  likely  to  be  undermined. 
The  auditory  function,  on  the  other  hand,  is  relatively 
vulnerable ;  and  it  is  Hable  to  derangement  by  even 
a  minor  cerebral  disturbance. 

Taking  the  faculty  of  speech,  we  find  that  vowel- 
color  is  phylogenetically  and  ontogenetically  later  in 
development  than  pitch.  Vowel-coloration  is,  in 
fact,  the  last  term  in  evolution,  and  is  hence  the  first 
term  in  dissolution.  Pitch  belongs  to  natural  or 
emotional  speech;  vowel-color  belongs  to  artificial 
language.  Vowels  express  nothing  in  themselves  by 
their  coloration.  Their  use  in  language  (together  with 
consonants)  is  almost  as  factitious  as  the  use  of  writ- 
ing. Speech-sounds  are  merely  so  many  symbols 
arbitrarily  associated  with  different  objects  and 
actions  in  order  that  the  latter  may  be  designated. 
Natural  language,  the  language  of  pitch,  is  found  in 
most  of  the  lower  animals,  and  by  means  of  it  they 
give  expression  to  their  emotions.  Apes  chatter  to 
each  other  or  to  an  ape-audience ;  but  the  sounds  that 
they  emit  are  merely  pitch-sounds  that  express  their 
feehngs.  In  the  language  of  the  human  child  we  find 
that  pitch  precedes  vowel-color.  Musical  recognition 
and  expression  precede  the  recognition  and  expression 


STAMMERING  233 

of  language.  Long  before  the  child  has  gained 
command  of  language  he  is  able  to  express  anger, 
fear,  and  affection  by  means  of  sounds  of  different 
pitch.  These  sounds  may  have  the  same  vowel- 
color  throughout :  the  child  gives  utterance  to  a  series 
of  (fa's,  fox  instance,  but  he  expresses  his  feehng  per- 
fectly by  means  of  the  inflection.  Pitch  is  thus  older 
than  vowel-color  in  the  development  of  both  the  race 
and  the  individual.  For  this  reason,  appreciation  of 
pitch  is  less  readily  lost,  and  the  aphasic  patient  may 
understand  and  give  utterance  to  pitch-sounds  when 
language  is  no  longer  expressed  or  understood.  But 
since  vowel-coloration  is  the  last  term  in  develop- 
ment, the  memory  and  appreciation  of  vowel-quaHties 
is  usually  the  first  to  be  impaired,  and  these  faculties 
are  disturbed  by  conditions  that  do  not  affect  the 
memory  or  appreciation  for  pitch.  The  fact  that 
vowel-coloration  is  the  first  term  in  the  dissolution 
of  speech  accounts  for  the  position  that  stammering 
holds  as  the  commonest  of  all  speech  defects.^ 

Minor  disturbances  in  faculties  other  than  the 
auditory  and  motor  undoubtedly  occur ;  but  they  do 
not  afifect  speech,  and  hence  give  rise  to  no  marked 
objective  symptoms. 

^  Amnesia  of  pitch  would  not  induce  stammering  even  if  this  form 
of  amnesia  were  to  occur.  But  the  stammerer's  difl&culty  does  not 
lie  with  pitch,  for  he  produces  pitch  when  stammering  on  the  con- 
tinuous sonant  consonants  —  and  the  pitch,  moreover,  is  usually 
accurate. 


234        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

That  stammering  is  an  auditory  disturbance  is 
borne  out  by  the  fact  that  it  does  not  occur  in  persons 
not  dependent  upon  auditory  cues.  Stammering 
seems  to  be  entirely  absent  among  the  congenitally 
deaf  that  have  been  taught  to  speak.  Concerning 
this  matter,  Hermann  Gutzmann  writes  as  follows :  ^ 

"It  is  well  known  that  the  congenitally  deaf  never  stammer 
—  and  in  Germany,  at  least,  they  are  all  taught  by  the  oral 
method  and  gain  a  thorough  mastery  of  speech.  The  reason 
for  this  is  manifest.  In  the  first  place,  they  learn  speech  under 
the  constant  supervision  of  an  instructor;  and  in  the  second 
place,  they  learn  to  associate  ideas  with  words  only  as  they 
slowly  and  progressively  acquire  mastery  of  the  articulative 
organs.  The  objection  —  which  has  been  made  —  that  there 
are  stammering  children  in  institutions  for  deaf-mutes  does 
not  affect  the  validity  of  the  statement ;  for  it  is  certain  that 
these  children  are  only  hard  of  hearing  or  that  they  have  be- 
come deaf  only  after  normal  speech  had  been  acquired.  For 
my  part,  I  have  never  met  a  stammering  child  in  a  school  for 
deaf-mutes ;  but  I  do  not  disavow  the  possibility  of  their  exist- 
ence, which  is  reasonable  enough  from  the  above  point  of  view.'* 

Dr.  Gallaudet,  President  of  the  Columbia  Institu- 
tion for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  (Washington,  D.C.),  says, 
in  a  communication  to  the  writer : 

"I  have  never  known  a  congenitally  deaf  person  who  stam- 
mered or  stuttered." 

Concerning  the  number  of  orally  taught  deaf  persons 
he  has  met.  Dr.  Gallaudet  writes : 

^  "Sprachheilkunde,"  2d  ed.,  p.  376. 


STAMMERING  235 

"I  have  been  engaged  in  teaching  the  deaf  for  more  than 
fifty  years,  and  have  visited  many  schools  in  this  country  and 
Europe.  I  must  have  met  many  thousands  of  this  class  of 
persons." 

Gutzmann's  explanation  for  the  deaf  person's  im- 
munity —  that  he  is  more  carefully  taught  and  that 
his  speech  and  conceptual  faculties  develop  concur- 
rently —  is  certainly  inadequate.  The  deaf  person 
is  subject  to  all  the  usual  inducing  causes  of  stam- 
mering, infectious  diseases,  shock,  etc.,  and  if  there 
were  no  more  fundamental  reason  for  his  immunity, 
he  would  certainly  fall  victim  to  the  disorder  as  do 
persons  of  normal  hearing.  The  reason  for  his  in- 
vulnerability is  undoubtedly  found  in  his  lack  of 
auditory  imagery,  and  the  consequent  failure  of  a  dis- 
turbance in  the  auditory  brain-centre  to  affect  his 
mental  and  oral  speech.  With  most  congenitally 
deaf  persons  there  is  probably  atrophy  in  the  temporal 
region,  but  this  degeneration  has,  of  course,  no  effect 
upon  consciousness. 

In  some  cases  of  stammering  the  impairment  of  the 
auditory  imagery  appears  to  be  sufficiently  severe  to 
entail  a  mild  degree  of  word-deafness.  Denhardt 
says  in  reference  to  the  stammerer's  interpretation  of 
language :  ^ 

"With  extraordinary  frequency  one  observes  in  the  stam- 
merer a  certain  tardiness  of  perception,  which  is  in  no  way  due 

^  "Das  Stottern  eine  Psychose,"  p.  188. 


236  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

to  lack  of  intelligence,  but  rather  to  lack  of  practice  in,  and  in- 
sufficient habituation  to,  the  exchange  of  thought  through  the 
medium  of  spoken  language.  It  is  as  though  the  verbally 
expressed  thought  required  with  the  stammerer  a  longer  time 
than  it  does  with  the  normally  speaking  person  to  reach  the 
seat  of  intelligence  through  the  ear  and  to  receive  its  interpreta- 
tion." 

The  reader  will  recognize  at  once  that  Denhardt  is 
really  describing  a  mild  condition  of  word-deafness. 
The  occurence  of  a  degree  of  word-deafness  in  stam- 
merers is  not  surprising.  The  condition  is  one  that 
might  well  be  expected  to  occur  under  circumstances 
that  oblige  the  stammerer  to  give  oral  expression  to  his 
thoughts  as  well  as  to  listen  to  the  words  of  other 
people.  The  necessity  for  speaking  imposes  upon  him 
a  mental  strain,  which,  with  the  attendant  fear,'  is 
sufficient  to  stifle  the  auditory  imagery.  There  is 
probably  a  condition  of  cerebral  hyperaemia  increasing 
the  inertia  of  the  auditory  cells;  and  this  inertia 
renders  the  cells  almost  as  slow  to  receive  auditory 
impressions  as  they  are  to  yield  mental  images. 

But  this  word-deafness  is  not  present  solely  during 
mental  excitement.  The  writer  has  remarked  its 
presence  in  stammerers  during  moments  of  complete 
tranquillity.  It  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  tendency 
to  misinterpret  vowels.  To  cite  specific  instances : 
Camp  was  misinterpreted  as  Kemp;  Woolley  as  Wyllie 
(short  y  OY  i)  ]  man  as  men;  pen  as  pin;  sighing  as 
sewing^  etc.     In  actual  speech,  the  stammerer's  vowels 


STAMMERING  237 

are  often  far  from  pure  even  when  the  impediment  is 
not  in  evidence.  He  is  frequently  misunderstood,  or, 
rather,  un-understood ;  and  is  consequently  called  upon 
to  repeat  —  much  to  his  embarrassment.  As  regards 
misinterpretation  of  vowels,  it  is  certain  that  this 
occurs  with  some  degree  of  frequency  in  persons  of 
normal  speech ;  hence  it  is  impossible  to  say  from 
casual  observation  whether  or  not  the  phenomenon  oc- 
curs more  frequently  among  stammerers.  The  matter 
is  one  for  investigation  in  the  psychological  laboratory. 
Apparently  the  average  non-stammerer  is  not  re- 
markably apt  at  interpreting  sounds.  When  Wyllie 
made  his  interesting  experiments  in  the  perception  of 
an  apple  through  different  senses,  he  tested  a  number 
of  persons  by  paring  an  apple  with  a  table  knife,  hold- 
ing it  near  the  ear  of  the  subject. 

"Sixteen  persons  in  all,  mostly  adults,  were  tried  in  this 
fashion,  and  of  the  whole  number  only  three  answered  correctly, 
'You  are  paring  an  apple.'  The  others  thought  we  were  paring 
wood,  clipping  paper  with  scissors,  rubbing  salt,  rubbing  two 
surfaces  of  cloth  together,  etc."  ^ 

In  view  of  these  remarkable  results  it  behooves  one 
to  be  conservative  in  drawing  conclusions  concerning 
the  relative  ability  of  the  stammerer  to  interpret  sounds 
and  spoken  language.  The  writer  is,  however,  of  the 
opinion  that  a  large  proportion  of  stammerers  manifest 

^Wyllie,  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  p.  228. 


.238  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

some  degree  of  word-deafness  under  such  conditions  as 
induce  severe  stammering ;  i.e.  under  conditions  that 
subvert  the  auditory  imagery. 

The  writer  has  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  nature  of 
the  mental  imagery  possessed  by  the  average  stam- 
merer. The  method  employed  was  the  circulation  of  a 
questionnaire.  A  general  description  of  mental  im- 
agery, similar  to  that  given  in  Chapter  I,  accompanied 
the  question-forms,  for  most  of  the  subjects  had,  un- 
fortunately, little  knowledge  of  psychology.  The 
questions  employed  were  as  follows :  ^ 

1  The  writer  would  appreciate  replies  to  this  questionnaire  from 
any  of  his  readers  that  happen  to  be  stammerers  and  have  some 
knowledge  of  psychology.  A  general  description  of  the  mental 
imagery  of  each  type  would,  of  course,  answer  the  purpose.  In- 
formation is  desired  especially  in  regard  to  the  auditory  imagery 
and  the  verbal  imagery.  The  motor  imagery  —  especially  of  articu- 
lative  movements  —  is  also  important.  If  the  reader  should  confine 
himself  to  the  questions  here  given,  it  might  be  well  to  observe 
the  following  directions,  which  prefaced  the  questionnaire  in  its 
original  form : 

"Read  the  questionnaire  through  before  beginning  to  reply.  Do 
not  trouble  to  repeat  the  questions  ;  refer  to  them  simply  by  number. 
Make  your  answers  as  complete  as  possible,  avoiding  where  prac- 
ticable such  replies  as  Yes  and  No.  If  unable  to  answer  a  question, 
state  the  fact  frankly.  Usually  it  will  answer  itself  at  some  moment 
when  you  are  watching  your  thoughts. 

"Be  careful  not  to  describe  the  image  of  a  sensation  that  you 
have  just  previously  experienced.  Such  images,  are,  as  a  rule, 
exceptionally  vivid.  Confine  your  description  to  images  of  sensa- 
tions that  have  not  occurred  within  the  preceding  five  or  ten  min- 


STAMMERING  239 

QUESTIONNAIRE! 

1.  Think  of  some  person  who  is  well  known  to  you,  but  whom 
you  have  not  seen  for  some  little  time.  Do  you  clearly  see  the 
features ;  the  outline  of  the  figure ;  the  color  of  the  clothes  ? 
Do  you  seem  to  see  the  person  through  a  mist,  or  in  a  very 
poor  light  ? 

2.  Have  you  a  distinct  memory  for  the  scenes  that  you  ob- 
serve in  daily  life  ?  Do  the  objects  appear  to  you  in  a  clear 
light,  and  with  good  definition?     Are  the  colors  natural? 

3.  Can  you  picture  scenes  described  in  a  novel  ? 

4.  How  do  your  visual  images  differ  from  objects  as  you 
actually  see  them  ? 

5.  Imagine  yourself  brushing  your  hair.  Do  you  distinctly 
feel  the  arm-movements  that  you  would  employ  ? 

6.  Can  you  in  memory  revive  the  hand-movements  involved 
in  writing  your  signature?  Do  you  either  hear  or  feel  the 
scratching  of  the  pen  upon  the  paper  ?  Does  the  performance 
seem  awkward  as  you  imagine  yourself  writing  with  the  left 
hand? 

7.  Can  you  imagine  the  (touch)  sensations  that  you  would 
get  from  handling  a  piece  of  sandpaper ;  a  wet  cake  of  soap ; 
a  crisp,  dead  leaf  ? 

8.  Can  you  mentally  distinguish  the  feeling  of  a  handful  of 
sand  from  that  of  a  handful  of  sawdust?  Can  you,  by  your 
memory  for  feeling,  mentally  distinguish  silk  from  velvet;  a 
light  pin-prick  from  a  deep  pin-prick ;  a  snowball  from  a  ball  of 
dough  ? 

utes.  It  is  advisable  to  make  these  tests  under  conditions  of  quiet, 
in  order  to  facilitate  concentration  of  attention.  Closing  the  eyes 
will  frequently  intensify  the  mental  images." 

1  Some  of  these  questions  are  taken  or  adapted  from  standard 
questionnaires. 


240  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

9.  Can  you  imagine  the  feelings  of  different  objects  as  you 
think  of  yourself  groping  in  the  dark  ? 

10.  Can  you  recall  the  odor  of  violets ;  of  cheese ;  of  tobacco- 
smoke  ;  of  frying  bacon  ? 

11.  Can  you  recall  the  taste  of  a  lemon;  of  salt;  of  sugar; 
of  some  bitter  substance,  such  as  quinine  ? 

12.  Can  you  imagine  the  scalding  sensation  from  coffee  that 
is  too  hot  to  drink  ?    The  coldness  of  ice-cream  ? 

13.  Do  you  get  an  image  of  pain  as  you  imagine  yourself 
slashing  your  wrist  with  a  knife  ? 

14.  Hold  your  hands  as  though  about  to  clap  them  together. 
Can  you  distinctly  hear  the  sound  that  is  about  to  occur  ?  Now 
strike  the  hands  together  and  compare  the  sound  with  your 
auditory  image.    Was  the  latter  clear  and  accurate  ? 

15.  Hold  your  fingers  ready  to  snap  them.  Can  you  clearly 
think  of  the  sound  in  this  case  ?    Verify  the  image. 

16.  Go  to  the  window  and  hold  your  hand  as  though  about  to 
tap  the  pane  with  the  knuckles.  Can  you  distinctly  imagine 
the  sound  that  is  about  to  occur  ?  Verify  by  tapping  the  pane. 
Was  your  image  vivid  and  accurate,  or  were  you  totally  unable 
to  think  of  the  sound  ? 

17.  Can  you  hear  in  memory  the  beat  of  rain  against  the 
window-panes ;  the  crack  of  a  whip ;  a  church  bell ;  the  hum 
of  bees ;  a  train-whistle ;  the  chirping  of  sparrows  ? 

18.  Can  you  caU  to  mind  instrumental  music  so  that  it  gives 
you  pleasure  ? 

19.  Can  you,  at  will,  imagine  tunes  on  different  instruments, 
—  the  piano,  flute,  cornet,  etc,  ? 

20.  Do  you  play  any  instrument  by  ear  ? 

21.  Do  you  sing  to  entertain  friends  ? 

22.  Do  you  frequently  have  tunes  running  through  your 
head  ?  If  so,  do  you  hear  such  tunes  on  an  instrument,  or  do 
you  mentally  sing  them  in  words  ? 


STAMMERING  241 

23 .  Can  you  mentally  whistle  a  melody  ? 

24.  Can  you  clearly  recall  the  voices  of  your  friends  ?  Do 
you  recall  voices  or  faces  more  readily  ? 

'25.   As  you  read  a  letter  from  a  friend,  are  the  words  in  your 
own  voice,  or  unmistakably  in  the  voice  of  the  writer  ? 

26.  Do  you  imagine  a  different  voice  for  each  character  in  a 
novel  ? 

27.  When  thinking  in  words,  do  you  hear  them  within  your 
head,  or  do  you  seem  to  be  mentally  articulating  them;  i.e. 
speaking  them  with  lips,  tongue,  etc.  ? 

28.  Does  your  thinking  voice  resemble  your  speaking  voice 
in  quality,  volume,  pitch,  inflection,  etc.  ?  or  does  the  voice 
appear  to  be  nobody's  in  particular  —  a  sort  of  standard  think- 
ing voice  ? 

29.  Does  the  memory  of  your  whispering  voice  seem  to 
differ  from  that  of  your  speaking  voice  ?  (Make  the  compari- 
son on  the  normal  inward  breath,  and  not  while  exhaling.) 

30.  Open  the  mouth,  and  without  moving  the  lips  read 
silently  the  following  words :  wobble,  bubble,  toddle,  woman, 
mimicry.  Do  these  words  appear  thick  and  unnatural,  as 
though  you  were  attempting  to  speak  with  the  lips  apart  ? 

31.  Do  you  ever  move  the  lips  when  reading  silently  ? 

32.  Do  you,  when  speaking,  have  visual  images  ("printed" 
or  "written")  of  the  words  that  you  utter? 

S3.  Can  you  hear  in  imagination  the  barking  of  a  dog? 
The  crowing  of  a  cock?  Do  you  clearly  hear  the  sounds,  or 
does  it  appear  that  you  are  mentally  saying  them  ?  Are  your 
images  unmistakable  animal  cries,  or  merely  the  conventional 
"bow-wow"  and  "cock-a-doodle-doo"? 

34.  Imagine  yourself  tapping  a  tea-cup  with  a  spoon.  Can 
you  mentally  hear  the  clinking  sound  ?  Do  you  feel  yourself 
manipulating  the  spoon  ?     Are  visual  images  present  ? 

35.  Imagine  yourself  firing  a  revolver.    Do  you  feel  the 


242  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

weapon  in  your  hand  ?  Do  you  feel  yourself  pulling  the  trigger  ? 
Is  the  report  clear  and  sharp  ?  Do  you  mentally  stand  off  and 
see  yourself  performing  the  act?  Are  you  able  to  do  this  if 
you  wish  ? 

36.  When  the  word  violin  is  suggested,  do  you  think  first  of 
the  appearance  of  the  instrument  or  of  the  sounds  made  when 
it  is  played  ? 

37.  Think  of  a  train.  What  mental  images  are  present  in 
the  thought  ? 

3,S.  Give  your  mental  image-types  in  order  of  decreasing 
intensity. 

39.  Give  any  supplementary  information  that  may  occur  to 
you  in  reference  to  your  mental  imagery. 

Further  questions  were  given  concerning  the  rela- 
tive difficulty  experienced  with  long  and  short  vowels, 
and  concerning  the  stammerer's  ability  to  repeat 
words  spoken  by  others,  to  speak  in  unison  with 
others,  to  sing,  etc.  In  every  case  the  replies  bore  out 
the  statements  already  made  in  this  chapter  concern- 
ing the  various  paradoxes  of  stammering. 

Several  of  the  subjects  clearly  indicated  by  their 
replies  that  they  had  experienced  the  amnesia  during 
speech  —  and  none  of  them,  by  the  way,  knew  any- 
thing of  the  theory  the  writer  is  advocating  in  the 
present  monograph.  Two  of  the  correspondents 
stated  that  they  found  the  mind  to  be  absolutely 
blank  when  they  stammered.  Had  they  been  versed 
in  psychology,  they  probably  would  have  said  that 
there  was  an  occurrence  of  auditory  amnesia.     Most 


STAMMERING  243 

of  the  subjects  stated,  in  reply  to  a  question,  that 
they  would  intuitively  recognize  an  unfamiliar  word  as 
difficult — the  name  of  a  person  or  a  town,  for  instance. 
This  means  either  that  the  auditory  image  disappears 
during  silent  thought^  or  that  the  kinaesthetic  image  of 
the  word  is  distorted.  (The  subject  of  distorted 
imagery  will  be  discussed  later.)  With  an  absolutely 
strange  word,  it  is  more  Hkely  that  the  former  con- 
dition prevails. 

The  writer  gives  here  a  set  of  his  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions. He  finds  it  necessary  to  give  his  own  answers 
rather  than  those  of  his  correspondents  because,  im- 
fortunately,  none  of  these  subjects  were  trained  in  in- 
trospection. 

(i)  The  features,  the  outline,  etc.,  are  dim.  The  figure 
appears  as  through  a  dark  mist  or  as  though  seen  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  field  of  vision.  The  figure,  however,  is  at  the  centre 
of  the  mental  visual  field.  There  is  practically  no  color  in  the 
figure  till  I  actually  look  for  it.  Then  the  colors  are  faintly 
discernible.  I  can  just  distinguish  them  as  I  would  distinguish 
real  colors  in  relative  darkness. 

1  The  average  stammerer  will  probably  find  upon  introspection 
that  auditory  amnesia  not  infrequently  occurs  during  silent  thought. 
The  auditory  nucleus  then  drops  from  the  word,  leaving  a  kin- 
aesthetic  outline.  This  imperfect  image  is  quite  sufl&cient  for 
silent  thought ;  for  it  is  the  fimction  of  the  word  —  its  associations, 
and  not  its  intrinsic  content  —  that  is  significant.  But  the  image  is 
not  adequate  for  oral  speech.  The  speaker  must  know  not 
merely  what  the  word  means ;  he  must  know,  f vuther,  how  the  word 
sounds. 


244  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

(2)  My  visual  images  of  scenes  are  pictorial  abortions. 
The  light  is  poor  to  the  last  degree,  and  the  mental  picture  is 
lacking  in  detail.  The  picture  appears  in  Hght  and  shade 
rather  than  color.  I  can  introduce  color  only  by  an  effort  of 
attention.     Even  then  the  color  is  not  usually  distinct. 

(3)  Scenes  that  I  imagine  are  about  as  clear,  or  dim,  in  my 
mind  as  scenes  that  I  remember. 

(4)  The  imagery  described  in  answers  (i)  and  (2)  is  quite 
typical.  My  visual  images  are  commonly  lacking  in  color  and 
detaU,  and  the  illumination  is  defective.  In  this  respect 
the  images  are  like  pictures  taken  from  a  bad  negative :  they 
show  the  contour  and  body  of  an  object,  but  none  of  the  finer 
points.  I  find  that  the  detail  is  brought  out  at  a  particular 
point  of  the  image  only  by  direct  attention  to  it.  On  the  whole, 
my  visual  images  are  so  vestigial  that  I  almost  wonder  how  I 
think.  Yet,  when  my  visual  images  become  detailed  and 
colored,  as  sometimes  happens  during  extreme  fatigue,  I  find 
that  the  clear  optical  images  are  distracting.  They  seem  to 
divert  the  attention  from  the  relations  existing  between  them, 
and  thus  they  impede  abstract  thought. 

(5)  The  arm-movements  are  almost  as  distinct  as  though  I 
actually  made  them.  Mentally,  I  can  execute  almost  any  mus- 
cular movement,  and  can  "feel"  the  movement  with  great 
clearness. 

(6)  I  can  feel  the  hand-movements  with  great  distinctness. 
I  feel  the  movement  of  the  pen  over  the  paper,  and  feel  the  vari- 
ations in  pressure.  The  pen,  however,  moves  silently.  The 
performance  is  just  as  awkward  when  I  write  mentally  with  the 
left  hand  as  when  I  do  so  in  fact. 

(7)  All  of  these  touch-sensations  are  very  clear.  My  tactile 
images  are  scarcely  less  vivid  than  my  kinaesthetic  images. 
I  can  feel  the  sharp  grains  of  sand  as  I  handle  the  sand-paper. 
I  can  feel  the  wet  and  slimy  cake  of  soap,  and  by  a  movement 


STAMMERING  245 

of  the  thumb  and  fingers  can  turn  it  over  and  over  in  my  hand. 
I  feel  the  sharp  edges  of  the  leaf  as  I  crumble  it  in  my  hand. 

(8)  I  can  make  all  of  these  distinctions  quite  readily.  In 
the  case  of  the  pin,  however,  I  distinguish  a  mere  touch  from  a 
light  pin-prick.  I  cannot  get  a  very  distinct  image  of  pain  as 
I  imagine  the  heavier  pressure  of  the  pin. 

(9)  These  images  occur  with  great  vividness. 

(10)  The  olfactory  images  do  not  appear  to  be  very  clear, 
and  I  meet  with  little  success  as  I  endeavor  to  think  of  the  odors 
in  the  order  mentioned,  though  for  a  moment  I  get  a  faint 
mental  image  of  the  odor  of  the  bacon.  Olfactory  images  are, 
however,  sometimes  quite  vivid  in  my  consciousness,  and  a 
distinct  image  will  occasionally  rise  without  any  overt  associa- 
tional  connection, 

(11)  These  gustatory  images  are  not  very  clear,  though  I 
get  a  fairly  good  image  of  the  taste  of  the  lemon.  Taste-images 
often  seem  to  me  to  be  quite  intense,  but  I  find  upon  analysis 
that  this  is  due  in  large  part  to  the  prominence  of  the  tactual 
element ;  the  actual  gustative  element  is  often  relatively  weak. 

(12)  The  thermal  images  are  fairly  clear,  though  by  no 
means  so  strong  as  the  normal  touch-images. 

(13)  There  is  not  a  clear,  localized  image  of  pain,  though  I 
distinctly  feel  the  touch  of  the  knife.  The  flesh  seems  to  be 
analgesic  but  not  anaesthetic.  The  thought  of  cutting  my  wrist 
is  accompanied  by  a  distinctly  disagreeable  element  that  seems 
to  take  the  form  of  a  general  chiU. 

(14)  I  can  get  absolutely  no  image  of  sound.  I  can  mentally 
feel  and  see  the  movements  that  my  hands  would  make,  and 
can  mentally  feel  the  contact  of  the  hands ;  but  I  am  deaf  to 
the  sound  that  would  occur. 

(15)  Utter  silence. 

(16)  Ditto. 

(17)  I  find  it  impossible  to  think  of  these  things  in  tenns  of 


246  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

sound.  The  thoughts  are  visually  represented.  In  the  case 
of  the  whip  and  the  bell  there  are  also  motor  images :  I  mentally 
crack  the  whip  and  pull  at  the  bell-rope.  No  soimd,  however, 
supervenes. 

(18)  Am  quite  unable  to  recall  instrumental  music. 

(19)  Impossible. 

(20)  No. 

(21)  No. 

(22)  I  can  occasionally  recall  a  tune;  but  this  is  often  in- 
accurate. I  must  always  associate  the  tune  with  words.  The 
words  I  find  to  be  auditory-motor. 

(23)  No. 

(24)  I  find  it  practically  impossible  to  recall  voices.  Some- 
times I  can  associate  the  timbre  of  a  person's  voice  with  some 
simple  expression,  such  as  "Good  morning,"  or  with  a  single 
word  like  "Yes"  or  "No."  In  this  case  I  find  that  /  am  saying 
the  word  with  the  other  person's  voice ;  i.e.  I  feel  the  word  as 
I  hear  it. 

I  of  course  recall  visual  images  of  faces  more  readily  than 
this. 

(25)  Always  in  my  own  thinking  voice. 

(26)  The  characters  all  have  the  same  voice;  that  is,  my 
own  thinking  voice. 

(27)  I  mentally  feel  the  diflferent  speech-movements  and 
mentally  hear  the  vowels.  Occasionally  I  have  an  acoustic 
image  of  a  sonant  consonant  hke  m  or  n,  but  these  images  are 
not  very  conspicuous. 

(28)  The  acoustic  element  in  my  mental  voice  varies  greatly. 
Occasionally  it  possesses  unmistakable  timbre,  and  then  the 
timbre,  of  course,  resembles  that  of  my  speaking  voice.  On 
such  occasions  the  volume,  pitch,  and  inflection  can  also  be 
detected ;  but  these  elements  are  felt  as  well  as  heard.  When 
the  acoustic  element  in  the  voice  happens  to  be  weak,  all  timbre 


STAMMERING  247 

virtually  disappears.  The  voice  then  loses  its  character  and 
becomes  a  sort  of  standard  thinking  voice ;  i.e.  it  is  predomi- 
nantly kinaesthetic.  But  even  under  these  conditions  it  possesses 
pitch  and  inflection,  these  elements  being  represented  to  some 
extent  in  terms  of  feeling. 

(29)  I  find  that  the  acoustic  intensity  of  my  voice  is  prac- 
tically the  same  whether  I  mentally  whisper,  speak  aloud,  or 
shout.  The  only  difference  detected  is  in  the"  effort"  put 
forth. 

(30)  The  mental  words  appear  thick  and  unnatural. 

(31)  Yes,  occasionally;  and  especially  if  the  lips  should 
momentarily  be  apart. 

(32)  These  images  do  not  usually  appear;  but  by  an  act 
of  conscious  attention  I  can  arouse  visual  images  of  words 
fairly  readily.  But  though  these  images  appear  promptly,  they 
are  not  at  all  distinct. 

{^T,)  I  am  mentally  saying  the  words.  The  words  are  audi- 
tory-motor. 

(34)  I  can  picture  the  scene  and  can  mentally  feel  myself 
manipulating  the  spoon.  I  can  feel  and  see  myself  striking 
the  teacup,  but  I  do  not  get  an  image  of  the  sound. 

(35)  I  see  my  arm  before  me  and  see  the  weapon  in  my  hand. 
I  distinctly  feel  the  revolver  and  feel  myself  pulling  the  trigger. 
I  can  see  the  smoke  and  can  feel  the  "kick,"  but  I  do  not  hear 
the  sound.  Now  I  can  mentally  stand  off  and  see  myself  go 
through  the  performance.  The  image  is  about  as  clear  —  or 
dim  —  as  any  other  visual  image,  but  I  have  no  trouble 
in  redintegrating  it.  The  revolver  is  again  of  the  noiseless 
type. 

(36)  I  think  of  the  appearance  of  the  instrument.  I  cannot 
think  of  its  sound, 

(37)  I  am  standing  about  a  hundred  feet  from  the  railway, 
and  I  see  the  train  go  rapidly  and  silently  past  me.     I  can  see 


248  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

the  contour  and  body  of  the  train,  but  I  see  practically  none  of 
the  details  unless  I  look  for  them  individually. 

(38)  Motor  and  Tactile. 
Visual. 

Thermal  and  Algesic. 
Gustatory. 
Olfactory. 
Auditory. 

(39)  Although  my  visual  images  are  vestigial,  I  find  that 
they  predominate  in  my  thinking.  Much  of  my  abstract  thought 
proceeds  in  visual  imagery.  These  visual  images  are  often 
diagrammatic,  and  various  parts  of  the  image  or  various  images 
then  move  in  such  a  manner  as  to  express  relations.  Often 
the  relation  is  expressed  by  an  eye-  or  hand-movement  in  motor 
terms.  Very  little  abstract  thought  seems  to  occur  in  verbal 
imagery.  I  can  usually  think  more  freely  and  more  rapidly 
if  I  do  not  stop  to  express  my  thoughts  in  words. 

I  not  infrequently  experience  strong  auditory  images  during 
dreams,  and  I  have  found  these  images  to  occur  during  fever. 
But  during  the  waking  state  no  sound-image  enter  my  con- 
sciousness except  the  soimd-images  associated  with  my  verbal 
thought. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  say  whether  the  lack  of 
auditory  imagery  indicated  by  these  answers  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  average  stammerer.  The  writer  is 
inclined  to  believe  that  such  is  the  case.  Very  few 
stammerers  possess  a  ''musical  ear."  Charles  Lamb 
probably  spoke  for  the  majority  of  stammerers  when 
he  said,  "  Sentimentally,  I  am  disposed  to  harmony; 
but  organically,  I  am  incapable  of  a  tune."  Among 
approximately  two   hundred   stammerers  the  writer 


STAMMERING  249 

has  known  only  two  that  were  able  to  sing  without 
disgracing  themselves.^ 

Several  writers  have  remarked  the  defective  ear  of 
the  stammerer.     Klencke  says  :  ^ 

"I  put  notes  by  the  side  of  the  vowels  to  indicate  the  key 
in  which  they  are  to  be  produced.  By  so  doing,  the  patient 
acquires  the  use  of  his  voice  in  its  full  compass  and  cultivates 
his  ear  for  the  tone,  in  distinguishing  which  nearly  every  stutterer 
[stammerer]  is  defective." 

And  thus  Albert  Gutzmann:' 

"If  a  child  cannot  distinguish  a  high  from  a  low  tone  by  the 
ear  (I  have  often  found  that  with  adult  stuttering  persons)  he 
may  put  his  hand  on  the  larynx  of  the  teacher  or  of  another  child 
and  notice  the  difference  by  feeling,  for  the  larynx  rises  for  the 
higher  tones  and  sinks  for  the  deeper  ones." 

Not  every  stammerer,  however,  is  lacking  in  general 
auditory  imagery.  The  replies  to  the  writer's  ques- 
tionnaire ^  show  (if  they  may  be  regarded  as  reHable) 
that  the  imagery  is  sometimes  fairly  strong.  As  re- 
gards the  acoustic  imagery  of  ordinary  physical  sounds 
and  music,  the  repHes  exhibited  the  two  extremes  as 
well  as  the  different  degrees  between  them.  In  some 
cases  there  was  no  memory  whatever  for  ordinary 

1  One  of  these  had  incurred  his  impediment  through  imitation. 

2  The  Voice,  Vol.  I,  p.  112  (from  a  translation  of  "Die  Heilung 
des  Stotterns"). 

« Albert  Gutzmann,  "The  Cure  of  Stuttering"  {The  Voice,  Vol.  V, 
p.  83).  *  About  two  dozen  sets  of  answers  were  received. 


250  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

sounds,  and  in  other  cases  most  sounds  were  appar- 
ently represented. 

There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  necessary  parity 
between  the  acoustic  memory  for  ordinary  sounds  and 
the  acoustic  memory  for  words.  Ballet  says  in  refer- 
ence to  this  matter :  ^ 

"We  know  a  distinguished  musician  that  is  endowed  with  a 
remarkable  memory  for  sounds;  but  he  recalls  words  by  in- 
voking his  visual  rather  than  his  auditory  memory." 

The  existence  of  clear  musical  imagery  or  clear 
general  auditory  imagery  does  not  therefore  necessarily 
indicate  the  existence  of  a  clear  auditory  memory  for 
words. 

The  writer's  correspondents  were  unanimous  in  the 
statement  that  they  both  heard  and  felt  their  words 
when  thinking  them.  The  acoustic  element  seemed 
subject  to  a  good  deal  of  variation,  some  correspond- 
ents stating  that  the  thinking  voice  resembled  the 
speaking  voice  in  timbre,  volume,  etc.,  and  others 
stating  that  verbal  thought  took  place  in  "a  sort  of 
standard  thinking  voice";  i.e.  in  a  voice  in  which 
the  acoustic  element  must  be  decidedly  weak.  AU 
agreed,  however,  that  the  acoustic  element  was  pres- 
ent. This,  of  course,  is  exactly  what  one  would 
expect. 

But  it  seems  probable  that  the  average  stammerer 

1  "Le  langage  interieur  et  I'aphasie,"  2d  ed.,  p.  28. 


STAMMERING  251 

has  weak  rather  than  strong  auditory  verbal  imagery. 
It  would  not  be  surprising  to  find  that  this  imagery  is 
relatively  strong  in  a  small  minority,  for  the  stam- 
merer's difficulty  is  not  occasioned  by  deprivation 
or  weakness  of  the  auditory  imagery,  but  by  tran- 
sient auditory  amnesia.  The  stammerer  has  audi- 
tory imagery,  and  he  relies  upon  it  in  speech. 
Even  after  the  occurrence  of  the  amnesia,  the 
acoustic  image  must  ultimately  appear;  for  if 
this  were  not  the  case,  the  stammerer  would  be 
permanently  aphasic.  The  imagery  may,  then,  in 
some  cases  be  strong  (though  one  must  be  conservative 
in  interpreting  the  statements  of  non-psychologists) ; 
but  the  amnesia  may  appear,  none  the  less.  The  in- 
ducing cause  of  stammering  —  the  emotional  shock, 
fever,  or  whatever  it  be  —  may  effect  not  so  much  a 
general  enervation  of  the  auditory  verbal  centre  as  a 
functional  perversion  that  renders  transitory  amnesia 
hkely  to  supervene.  But  if  this  were  the  case,  it 
would  be  the  person  with  congenitally  weak  auditory 
imagery  that  would  be  most  likely  to  suffer.  The 
weakness  of  the  imagery  would  itself  be  a  predisposing 
cause.  It  would  render  the  amnesia  more  Kable  to  ap- 
pear and  more  difficult  to  overcome.  For  this  reason 
one  is  impelled  to  the  belief  that  the  average  stam- 
merer has  weak  rather  than  strong  acoustic  imagery. 
The  weakness  of  the  imagery  is  probably  in  most 
cases  a  congenital  rather  than  an  acquired  defect,  the 


252  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

acquired  defect  being  a  functional  perversion  that  at 
times  subverts  the  imagery  that  is  already  dangerously 
near  the  point  of  extinction.  When  the  imagery  is 
congeni tally  strong,  the  same  functional  defect  might 
merely  lower  its  intensity  without  affecting  oral  speech. 

It  would  be  quite  possible,  though,  for  a  general 
weakening  of  the  auditory  imagery  to  induce  stammer- 
ing. The  stammering  would  be  more  likely  to  appear 
if  there  existed  a  neurotic  tendency  that  rendered 
the  intensity  of  the  imagery  variable.  The  imagery 
would  then  vacillate  near  its  minimum  intensity  and 
would  repeatedly  disappear  from  consciousness.  The 
combination,  weakness  of  imagery  and  variability  in 
intensity,  would  be  sufficient  to  occasion  stammering 
in  any  person  dependent  upon  auditory  cues ;  and  if 
either  of  these  causes  were  extraneously  introduced 
when  the  other  was  already  existent,  the  impediment 
would  be  estabHshed. 

It  is  also  quite  conceivable  that  a  general  enervation 
of  the  auditory  verbal  centre  might  induce  stammering 
even  if  there  existed  no  marked  tendency  to  variability 
in  the  imagery.  The  general  lowering  of  the  intensity 
of  the  auditory  imagery  would  probably  entail  obHtera- 
tion  of  some  of  the  less  distinctive  vowel-colors,  and  a 
somewhat  equable  form  of  stammering  would  result. 
This  cause  is  probably  operative  in  some  cases  where 
temporary  stammering  occurs  during  the  course  of  a 
disease  or  during  the  succeeding  convalescent  period. 


STAMMERING  253 

Variability  in  the  intensity  of  mental  imagery  is 
normal,  though  extreme  or  sudden  variations  probably 
occur  only  when  there  exists  a  neurotic  tendency  or 
some  cerebral  functional  perversion. 

Angell  says  of  the  normal  mental  imagery :  ^ 

"To-day  this  may  be  principally  auditory  and  verbal,  to-mor- 
row largely  visual.  It  may  be  on  the  one  occasion  vivid  and 
detailed,  and  on  the  other  evanescent  and  whoUy  schematic." 

Changes  in  theverbal  imagery  are  likewise  normal  and 
common.  In  his  "Motorische  Wortvorstellungen," 
Dodge  describes  the  mutations  in  the  verbal  imagery 
of  a  theological  student.  The  imagery  was  generally 
auditory-motor,  but  at  times  it  assumed  a  purely 
auditory  form : 

"One  day  he  told  me  that  his  verbal  imagery  had  been 
purely  auditory  during  the  course  of  the  preceding  evening. 
Not  the  slightest  trace  of  movement-images  was  present. 
This  he  had  determined  during  a  period  of  quiet  introspection. 
At  the  time  that  he  made  this  communication  to  me,  the  motor 
element  was  again  the  prominent,  and  apparently  the  exclusive, 
[?]  constitutent  of  his  mental  speech.  He  informed  me  on 
subsequent  occasions  that  the  motor  element  in  his  verbal 
thought  would  sometimes  completely  disappear  for  several  hours. 

"He  was  not  able  to  produce  this  change  in  the  character 
of  his  verbal  imagery  at  will.  The  auditory  verbal  imagery 
seemed  to  confine  itself  to  hours  of  quietness  and  repose.  Apart 
from  this,  no  regularity  could  be  observed."  ^ 

1  "Psychology,"  p.  253. 

'"Motorische  Wortvorstellungen,"  p.  36. 


254  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

It  is  probable  that  the  motor  images  disappeared 
when  the  auditory  images  became  sufl&ciently  intense 
to  represent  the  verbal  thought  independently.  This 
particular  case  shows  only  the  intensification  of  the 
auditory  imagery.  Its  obfuscation  may  or  may  not  be 
common  among  persons  of  normal  speech ;  but  it  is 
certainly  common  among  stammerers.  A  correspond- 
ent says,  in  reply  to  the  questionnaire : 

"When  thinking  in  words,  I  sometimes  hear  them  and  some- 
times seem  to  be  mentally  articulating  them.  When  my  speech 
has  been  annoying  me,  I  always  think  in  the  latter  way."  ^ 

The  latter  remark  suggests  that  failure  to  hear  the 
words  was  the  cause  of  the  stammering.  The  remark 
is  significant:  it  supports  the  behef  that  a  general 
obfuscation  of  the  auditory  imagery  renders  the  amnesia 
more  Hable  to  appear  and  more  difficult  to  overcome. 

The  increase  or  decrease  in  the  intensity  of  the  men- 
tal imagery  may  endure  for  hours,  days,  weeks,  or 
months.  The  mutations  are  primarily  attributable  to 
minor  changes  in  the  physical  condition,  —  physical 
changes  in  the  nervous  system  that  do  not  always 
manifest  themselves  in  definite  feeHngs.  Fatigue, 
sleeplessness,  or  an  attack  of  indigestion  may 
obfuscate  the  mental  imagery,  and  the  stammerer 
finds  that  for  some  unaccountable  reason  he  is  ex- 
periencing greater  difficulty  in  speech.     On  the  other 

^  The  correspondent  knew  nothing  of  the  theory  advanced  in  this 
monograph. 


STAMMERING  255 

hand,  the  tone  of  the  nervous  system  may  tempora- 
rily improve,  and  forthwith  the  auditory  imagery  is 
intensified.  All  traces  of  the  impediment  may  disap- 
pear, and  for  a  time  the  stammerer  enjoys  complete 
immunity  from  his  defect.  If  the  improved  tone  of 
the  nervous  system  is  due  to  a  change  of  climate,  the 
stammerer  may  have  no  difficulty  in  speech  for  weeks 
or  months  at  a  time.  But  the  speech-disorder  re- 
curs as  soon  as  he  becomes  acclimated,  or  as  soon  as 
some  minor  physical  disturbance  adversely  affects 
him. 

These  mutations  in  speech-disturbances  may  or 
may  not  be  due  exclusively  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
auditory  imagery,  but  certainly  they  are  attributable 
to  them  in  large  part. 

The  desideratum  in  speech  is  either  strong  auditory 
imagery  or  no  auditory  imagery  at  all.  The  strong 
imagery  renders  one  immune  from  speech-disturbances 
when  slight  variations  in  its  intensity  occur;  the 
absence  of  the  acoustic  imagery  renders  variation  im- 
possible. It  is  the  fugacious  and  vacillating  auditory 
imagery  that  causes  the  stammerer's  trouble.  The 
auditory  imagery  is  always,  as  it  were,  in  unstable 
equihbrium.  The  sound-image  is  continually  disap- 
pearing from  consciousness,  and  the  stammerer  is  left 
strugghng  for  a  foothold  in  space. ^ 

^  The  reader  that  is  a  non-stammerer  can  readily  comprehend  the 
nature  of  a  fugitive  image  by  watching  the  gradual  evanescence  of  a 


256  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  many  authorities  regard 
stammering  as  an  hereditable  defect.  Wyneken  says 
on  the  matter  :  ^ 

"  One  cannot  escape  the  fact  that  there  exists  in  many  cases 
a  certain  inborn  predisposition  to  stammering,  which  cannot 
be  eradicated  by  the  most  careful  training." 

Denhardt  regards  stammering  as  inheritable. 
Among  1994  cases  of  stammering  he  found  evidence  of 
heredity  in  1545 ;  that  is,  in  approximately  77I  per 
cent.^ 

Doubtless  many  cases  of  stammering  ascribed  to 
heredity  are  in  reahty  due  to  imconscious  imitation. 

visual  after-image.  Let  him  take  a  small  square  of  red  paper  and 
place  it  upon  a  white  background.  Let  him.  then  fixate  a  pin-prick 
at  the  middle  of  the  square  for  15  or  20  seconds.  When  the  square 
is  removed,  a  green  after-image  will  appear  upon  the  paper. 

This  after-image  assumes  various  degrees  of  vividness.  At  first 
the  outline  is  well  defined,  and  the  color  intense.  Gradually  the 
sharp  boundaries  disappear,  the  angles  vanish,  and  the  contour  is 
obliterated.  Simultaneously  the  color  fades,  and  finally  nothing 
remains  but  a  dim,  colored  haze.  In  its  turn,  this  haze  disappears, 
and  the  after-image  has  vanished. 

This  after-image  may  be  regarded  as  illustrating  the  various 
degrees  of  intensity  in  auditory  images.  The  ideal  auditory  image 
for  the  incitation  of  speech  is  the  one  analogous  to  the  square  with 
its  sharpest  outhne  and  coloration.  The  image  as  it  exists  in  many 
persons  —  and  probably  in  most  stammerers  —  is  comparable 
to  the  after-image  shortly  before  its  disappearance.  The  amnesia 
of  stammering  is  represented  by  the  visual  blank  by  which  the  image 
is  succeeded. 

^  "Ueber  das  Stottem  und  dessen  Heilung,"  p.  10. 

2  "Das  Stottem  eine  Psychose,"  p.  91. 


STAMMERING  257 

But  this  explanation  will  not  hold  in  all  cases,  for 
often  there  is  no  association  between  the  related  stam- 
merers. In  the  latter  cases  there  is  probably  an 
inherited  weakness  of  the  auditory  imagery  or  an  in- 
herited neurotic  tendency  entaihng  marked  variability 
in  the  imagery.  Either  of  these  factors  would  predis- 
pose the  child  to  stammering ;  and  if  the  other  factor 
should  supervene,  the  speech-disturbance  would  be 
estabhshed.  In  some  cases  it  is  probable  that  both 
factors  are  inherited  —  though  not  necessarily 
from  the  same  parent;  and  the  child  might  then  be 
said  to  inherit  his  stammering.^  The  stammering 
might  not  develop  if  the  neurotic  tendency  were  to 
manifest  itself  at  an  early  age,  for  the  child  would  then 
probably  learn  to  depend  upon  his  kinaesthetic  imagery. 
But  if  the  neurotic  tendency  were  not  displayed  till 
the  child  had  acquired  command  of  language,  stam- 
mering would  inevitably  ensue. 

The  form  of  stammering  that  has  been  considered 
up  to  this  point  is  pure  stammering;  i.e.  stammering 
directly  due  to  auditory  amnesia,  and  uncompHcated 
by  extraneous  symptoms.  The  bhnd  struggles  of  the 
stammerer  —  the  facial  contortion  and  physical  eflfort 
—  are    mere    epiphenomena.      They   are   secondary 

^  Davenport  gives  pedigrees  of  two  stammering  families  in  his 
"Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics."  He  inclines  to  the  view  that 
stammering  is  a  recessive  characteristic.  It  is  probably  incorrect, 
however,  to  regard  stammering  as  a  imit  character. 


258  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

manifestations  of  the  defect.  This  latter  form  of 
stammering  may  be  designated  secondary,  or  physical, 
stammering.  The  third  form  of  the  defect,  acquired 
kincBsthetic  stammering,  is  due,  Hke  the  first,  to  mental 
causes.  It  is  stammering  occasioned  by  perversion  or 
distortion  of  the  mental  imagery  of  speech.  This  per- 
version of  the  verbal  imagery  may  result  from  as- 
sociation with  or  imitation  of  other  stammerers,  or  it 
may  arise  as  the  direct  result  of  one's  own  stammering, 
the  process  being,  as  it  were,  one  of  auto-intoxication, 
or  self-infection. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  characteristics  of  these 
forms  of  stammering  a  Kttle  more  closely. 

Pure  Stammering 

The  forms  of  stammering  directly  due  to  auditory 
amnesia  may  be  roughly  classified.  The  classifica- 
tion is  of  no  particular  value  except  that  it  serves  to 
establish  one's  conception  of  pure  stammering. 

When  pure  stammering  manifests  itself  on  the  con- 
tinuous consonants,  it  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  pro- 
longation of  the  initial  sound.  In  the  word  few,  for 
instance,  a  continuous  fricative  sound  is  produced  till 
the  vowel  appears.  If  the  initial  consonant  happens 
to  be  sonant,  a  continuous  vocaHzation  accompanies 
its  production.  Strictly  speaking,  the  vocahzation  is 
part  of  the  consonant,  for  without  vocaHzation  the 
consonant  would   be  surd.     It   sometimes  happens, 


STAMMERING  259 

however,  that  the  '^ sonant"  consonants  are  produced 
without  voice.  This  surdal  stammering  on  the  con- 
tinuous sonant  consonants  can  be  regarded  as  pure,  for 
the  prolongation  of  the  consonant  is  directly  due  to  the 
auditory  amnesia. 

A  form  of  interruptive  or  repetitive  stammering 
sometimes  occurs  on  the  continuous  sonant  consonants. 
This  form  of  the  defect  is  frequently  ^'diagnosed"  as 
stuttering.  It  is  evident  that  the  distinction  between 
stammering  and  stuttering  is  artificial.  Repetitive 
stammering  is  not  due  to  disturbances  in  respiration 
or  to  occlusions  of  the  glottis,  but  rather  to  the  execu- 
tion of  articuiative  movements  that  are  not  directly 
succeeded  by  the  vowel.  The  stammerer  attempts 
to  say  six,  but  produces  a  series  of  short  sibilant 
sounds.  The  word  then  becomes  s-s-s-six.  He  at- 
tempts to  say  London,  but  repeatedly  articulates  a 
surdal  or  sonant  L.  In  both  cases  the  stuttering 
articulation  is  directly  occasioned  by  failure  of  the 
auditory  image.  Occasionally  a  silent  pause  occurs 
between  the  consonant  and  the  vowel.  This  form  of 
stammering  rarely  appears,  however,  on  the  con- 
tinuous consonants. 

All  other  forms  of  stammering  on  continuous  con- 
sonants, such  as  manifestation  of  Hngual  or  labial 
effort,  must  be  regarded  as  secondary. 

There  are  three  different  varieties  of  pure  stammer- 
ing on  the  explosive  consonants.     The  first  variety  is 


26o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

the  disjointed  speech  described  by  Kussmaul,  in  which 
there  is  a  distinct  lacuna  between  the  consonsant  and 
the  vowel.  Instead  of  saying  Kommeh  and  Kaffee, 
the  speaker  says  K — h — ommen  and  K — h — afee.  He 
articulates  the  consonant,  —  using  kinaesthetic  cues,  — 
then  waits  passively  for  the  auditory  image  to  appear. 
This  particular  form  of  stammering  exactly  reflects 
the  verbal  image  of  the  word.  It  is  the  purest  form  of 
stammering  that  can  occur  on  the  explosive  consonants. 
In  the  second  form  of  stammering  on  explosive  con- 
sonants the  articulatory  organs  are  held  passively  in 
position  till  the  auditory  image  rises  in  the  mind. 
The  word  is  articulated  as  soon  as  the  sound-image  ap- 
pears, and  no  marked  incoordination  is  perceptible  to 
the  ear, —  a  delay  only  is  heard.  The  stammering  ap- 
peals chiefly  to  vision ;  it  can  be  seen  that  the  articu- 
latory organs  take  their  initial  position  and  hold  it 
for  an  abnormal  length  of  time.  This  form  of  stammer- 
ing is  really  somewhat  of  an  accomplishment :  it  is  the 
stammering  of  the  virtuoso.  The  stammerer  essays 
to  retard  the  consonant  —  without  repeating  it,  or 
''holding"  it  with  undue  pressure  —  till  the  vowel  is 
ready  to  appear.  The  difflculty  is,  however,  that  the 
stammerer  cannot  always  tell  just  when  the  vowel  is 
ready  to  appear ;  and  when  he  produces  the  consonant, 
he  may  find  that  his  articulation  has  been  premature, 
and  before  he  finally  gets  the  vowel,  the  stammering 
may  be  decidedly  evident. 


STAMMERING  261 

The  third  variety  of  stammering  on  the  explosive 
consonants  takes  the  repetitive  form.  The  sonant 
consonants  are  sometimes  produced  as  surdal,  but  the 
surd  consonants  are  practically  never  vocahzed. 

This  exhausts  our  classification  of  pure  stammering. 

The  assertion  is  made  by  some  writers  that  stam- 
mering occurs  more  frequently  on  the  explosive  con- 
sonants than  on  the  continuous  consonants.  The 
disparity  is  sKght,  if  it  exists.  There  seem,  however, 
to  be  mechanical  and  psychological  reasons  why 
greater  difficulty  should  be  experienced  in  subjoining 
the  vowels  to  the  closed  consonants ;  hence,  if  stammer- 
ing does  occur  more  frequently  on  these  consonants, 
the  fact  need  not  indicate  that  the  consonants  them- 
selves are  difficult. 

When  a  word  commencing  with  a  sonant  explosive 
consonant  {B  or  D,  for  instance)  is  articulated, 
vocahzation  commences  in  advance  of  articulation. 
When  the  articulatory  movement  is  produced,  the 
vowel  must  follow  instantaneously;  otherwise  stam- 
mering results.  Vocalization  is  already  under  way, 
and  the  vocal  stream  must  be  shaped  immediately 
to  the  appropriate  vowel.  With  the  surd  explosive 
consonant  (P  or  T,  for  instance),  no  less  dexterity  is 
required.  The  consonant  is  exploded  by  a  non- 
vocaHzed  stream  of  breath ;  but  as  soon  as  articulation 
takes  place,  the  stream  of  breath  must  be  vocahzed 


262  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

and  given  its  requisite  color.  If  for  any  reason  the 
latter  process  is  delayed,  stammering  results.  It  is 
evident,  then,  that  for  fluent  enunciation  of  words 
commencing  with  explosive  consonants,  the  auditory 
image  must  be  at  the  instant  command  of  the  speaker. 
The  slightest  delay  in  its  appearance  produces  abnor- 
mal speech. 

So  dehcate  a  control  of  the  vowel  is  not  required  for 
the  continuous  consonants.  The  speaker  commences 
the  initial  consonant  —  a  F  or  an  If ,  for  instance  — 
and  sustains  it  till  the  vowel  appears.  Instantaneous 
production  of  the  vowel  is  not  necessary,  for  it  makes 
no  difference  whether  the  consonant  be  continued  for  a 
fiftieth  part  of  a  second  or  for  a  whole  second.  Hence 
a  less  delicate  control  of  the  auditory  image  is  re- 
quired. If  the  vowel  is  delayed  for  a  half  a  second,  the 
consonant  is  continued  so  much  longer.  The  contin- 
uous consonants  can  be  continued,  but  the  explosive 
consonants  can  not.  If  the  vowel  is  delayed  for  a  half 
a  second  with  the  closed  consonants,  stammering  must 
inevitably  result. 

These  facts  should  account  for  whatever  disparity 
exists  in  the  amount  of  difficulty  experienced  with 
the  two  forms  of  consonants.  There  is  another  fact 
that  might  account  for  the  more  frequent  occurrence 
of  stammering  on  the  closed  consonants.  Physical 
stammering  is  usually  greater  on  these  consonants ; 
hence  they  are  more  likely  to  be  affected  by  acquired 


STAMMERING  263 

kinaesthetic  stammering  due  to  distortion  of  the  mental 
imagery.  This  matter  will  be  better  understood  after 
the  subject  of  distorted  imagery  has  been  more  fully 
discussed. 

Secondary,  or  Physical,  Stammering 

It  will  be  noticed  that  up  to  this  point  practically 
nothing  has  been  said  concerning  labial  and  glottal 
"  spasms,"  "  paroxysms  of  stammering,"  etc.  These 
^'spasms"  constitute  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the 
stammerer's  misdirected  efforts  to  overcome  his 
difl&culty.  They  are  often  regarded,  however,  as  the 
primary  defect.  The  following  paragraph  exhibits  a 
fairly  typical  point  of  view : 

"The  most  distressing  cases  are  those  in  which  the  spasm 
extends  to  parts  unconnected  with  speech,  —  it  may  be  to 
nearly  the  whole  muscular  organism.  In  such  a  case  the 
spasm  commences,  let  us  assume,  at  the  base  of  the  tongue ; 
the  mouth  opens  widely  and  remains  in  that  position;  the 
muscles  of  expiration  work  convulsively ;  the  glottis  contracts ; 
respiration  becomes  arrested ;  the  face  becomes  congested  and 
the  veins  dilated;  violent  spasmodic  movements  involve  the 
trunk  and  limbs ;  and  only  after  some  time,  either  when  the 
patient  becomes  exhausted,  or  when  he  resolutely  restrains 
his  attempt  to  articulate,  does  his  paroxysm  come  to  an  end."^ 

These  "  spasms  "  are,  of  course,  neither  the  stam- 
mering nor  the  cause  of  the  stammering.  Strictly 
speaking,  stammering  is  httle  more  than  a  failure  of 

1  "Quain's  Dictionary  of  Medicine,"  ist  ed.,  p.  1513. 


264  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

speech  due  to  the  non-appearance  in  consciousness  of 
the  auditory  image.  It  is  the  inabihty  to  complete  a 
word  that  may  or  may  not  have  been  begun.  The 
primary  disturbance  is  essentially  passive.  The 
''spasms"  and  contortions  are  nothing  but  an  excres- 
cence on  the  disorder.  They  are  the  bhnd  and  impo- 
tent struggles  of  the  stammerer  against  an  invisible 
adversary.  Physical  stammering  is  purely  volim- 
tary.  It  is  not  always  dehberate :  it  is  often  the  prod- 
uct of  bewilderment.  But  it  is  voluntary  in  this 
sense  —  that  it  can  at  any  moment  be  inhibited. 
Often  the  stammerer  summarily  relinquishes  the  at- 
tempt to  speak,  and  thereupon  the  so-called  paroxysm 
is  at  an  end.  Physical  stammering  is  occasioned 
solely  by  the  speaker's  ignorance  of  the  real  nature 
of  the  disturbance.  When  the  vowel-image  fails  to  ap- 
pear, the  consonant  is  either  not  articulated  or  it  is 
rapidly  repeated.  Hence  the  stammerer  sees  in  the 
consonant  the  apparent  cause  of  his  difficulty,  and 
resorts  to  physical  effort  to  overcome  it.  He  presses 
the  Kps  together,  tightens  the  muscles  of  the  throat, 
clenches  the  fists,  and  may  work  even  his  arms  and 
legs  in  an  effort  to  articulate.  But,  since  articulation 
itself  causes  no  difficulty,  his  efforts  are  entirely  mis- 
directed. 

Physical  stammering  may,  in  many  cases,  lead  to 
obfuscation  of  the  verbal  imagery.  A  case  is  on 
record  in  which  a  subject  could  stop  his  internal 


STAMMERING  265 

language  by  simply  holding  the  breath.^  The  average 
person  with  marked  kinaesthetic  images  of  speech 
will  find  that  the  act  of  inhibiting  respiration  restrains 
the  internal  language.  Thus  it  is  clear  that  physical 
stammering  may  aggravate  the  amnesia. 

The  brain  expands  more  during  expiration  than  dur- 
ing inspiration.^  This  being  the  case,  it  is  evident 
that  the  common  practice  of  stammerers  of  exhausting 
the  breath  may  increase  cerebral  congestion,  and  thus 
likewise  aggravate  the  amnesia  that  directly  induces 
stammering. 

The  secondary  manifestations  of  stammering  are  so 
multiform  that  the  task  of  classifying  them  would  be 
arduous  to  the  last  degree.  The  writer  has  no  in- 
tention of  undertaking  the  task,  for  the  work  would  be 
worthless  when  complete.  Ssikorski  has  written  a 
chapter  on  the  symptomatology  of  stammering,  and 
he  commences  it  as  follows  :  ^ 

"The  manifestations  of  stammering  are  so  varied  and  com- 
plicated that  the  investigator  engaged  on  this  neurosis  must 
perforce  ask  himself  whether  there  exists  a  single  disturbance 
or  a  number  of  disturbances  that  have  been  grouped  together 
on  account  of  insufficient  analysis.  The  external  manifesta- 
tions are  so  diverse  that  it  seems  impossible  to  compare  and 
classify  the  symptoms  of  the  different  cases." 

^  Annales  Psychol.,  January,  1893,  p.  103.     (Quoted  by  Baldwin, 
"Mental  Development  of  the  Child  and  Race,"  p.  434.) 
2  Leonard  Hill,  "Cerebral  Circulation,"  p.  13. 
'  "Ueber  das  Stottern,"  p.  44. 


266  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

The  succeeding  143  pages  of  Ssikorski's  monograph 
contain  his  attempt  to  correlate  the  various  ''spasms" 
that  occur  in  stammering.  All  the  different  '^  spasms  " 
are  classified  and  described  —  from  those  in  the  upper 
lip  to  those  in  the  lower  extremities.  The  work  is  a 
monument  to  the  author's  thoroughness  and  patience, 
but  its  value  is  unfortunately  neghgible. 

A  remark  may  be  made  at  this  point  concerning  the 
frequent  self-exacerbation  of  physical  stammering. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  a  muscular  movement  is 
initiated  by  a  mental  image  of  its  resident  or  remote 
effect.  The  resident  effect  is  the  kinaesthetic  sensation. 
K  this  resident  sensation  gets  to  the  focus  of  attention 
during  the  mental  hiatus  occasioned  by  the  auditory 
amnesia,  it  may,  apparently,  augment  the  muscular 
contraction  by  assuming  the  function  of  the  inciting 
image.  The  excessive  muscular  contraction  that 
results  constitutes  a  pseudo-spasm;  and  it  is  this 
"spasm"  that  has  led  the  objective  observer  astray. 
But,  as  already  stated,  there  is  no  spasm  in  the  real 
sense  of  the  word.  At  any  moment  the  will  can  step 
in  and  inhibit  the  process.  All  that  is  necessary  is 
that  something  other  than  the  kinaesthetic  sensation 
be  placed  at  the  focus  of  attention.  To  secure  this 
condition  the  stammerer  has  often  to  rehnquish  the 
attempt  to  speak. 

The  following  paragraph  gives  James's  account  of 


STAMMERING 


267 


the  manner  in  which  a  sensory  stimulus  normally 
brings  about  a  motor  response.  (Figure  6,  to  which 
the  letters  refer,  represents  the  nervous  system  re- 
duced to  its  fewest  possible  terms.) 


Motor  Cell 


Muscle  «^ 


^> Sensory  Cell 

^  Eineesthetic  GeQ 

Sense-organ 


Fig.  6. 


"A  stimulus  reaching  the  sense-organs  awakens  the  sensory 
cell,  S;  this  by  the  connate  or  instinctive  path  discharges  the 
motor  ceU,  M,  which  makes  the  muscle  contract ;  and  the 
contraction  arouses  the  second  sensory  cell,  K,  which  may  be 
the  organ  either  of  a  'resident'  or  'kinaesthetic,'  or  of  a  'remote' 
sensation.  The  cell  K  again  discharges  into  M.  If  this  were 
the  entire  nervous  mechanism,  the  movement,  once  begun, 
would  be  self-maintaining,^  and  would  stop  only  when  the  parts 
were  exhausted.  And  this,  according  to  M.  Pierre  Janet,  is 
what  actually  happens  during  catalepsy."  ^ 

Each  elementary  movement  must  be  regarded  as 
possessing  its  own  motor  circle.  The  complex  move- 
ments required  for  the  articulation  of  a  word  would 
involve  several  motor  circles. 


^  This  circle  of  neural  activity  James  calls  the  "motor  circle." 
2  James,  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  582. 


268         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

In  regard  to  the  continuous  discharge  through  a 
a  motor  circle,  James  says :  ^ 

"We  should  all  be  cataleptics  and  never  stop  a  muscular 
contraction  once  begun,  were  it  not  that  other  processes  si- 
multaneously going  on  inhibit  the  contraction.  Inhibition  is 
therefore  not  an  occasional  accident;  it  is  an  essential  and 
imremitting  element  of  our  cerebral  life." 

The  inhibition  is  brought  about  by  the  transference 
of  attention  from  one  term  to  the  next  in  a  concate- 
nated series.  The  attention  is  always  directed  toward 
the  ultimate  result  to  be  achieved,  and  the  completion 
of  one  elementary  movement  is  the  signal  for  attention 
to  move  on  to  the  next.  If,  however,  one  of  the 
members  of  the  series  fails  to  appear  —  the  remote, 
auditory  image  of  the  vowel,  for  instance  —  the  ac- 
tivity in  the  preceding  motor  circle  is  unduly  pro- 
longed; and  if  the  kinaesthetic  sensation  from  the 
movement  comes  to  the  focus  of  attention,  the 
muscular  contraction  may  be  greatly  intensified.  In 
fact,  the  stammerer  may  be  able  to  inhibit  activity 
in  the  motor  circle  only  by  relinquishing  the  attempt 
to  speak. 

The  foregoing  is  an  attempt  to  explain  in  a  rather 
elementary  way  the  rationale  of  a  pseudo-spasm.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  solve  the  question  as  to 
what  length  the  muscular  contraction  can  be  automati- 
cally continued  after  it  has  been  voluntarily  begun. 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  583. 


STAMMERING  269 

The  attempt  would  lead  to  an  almost  interminable 
discussion  concerning  theories  of  different  ''levels"  of 
attention.  The  discussion  itself  would  lead  nowhere ; 
hence  it  is  best  omitted.  It  is  certain  that  activity 
in  the  motor  circle  is  voluntarily  initiated,  and  that  it 
can  at  any  moment  be  voluntarily  discontinued.  The 
whole  subjective  aspect  of  the  matter  can  be  summa- 
rized in  the  statement  that  the  wrong  element  gets  to 
the  focus  of  attention.  Instead  of  the  verbal  image  of 
a  word,  there  is  placed  at  the  focus  of  attention  a 
kinaesthetic  sensation  of  muscular  contraction.  This 
abnorm.al  condition  intensifies  the  physical  stammer- 
ing. 

But,  let  it  again  be  emphasized  that  the  pseudo- 
spasm  is  purely  a  secondary  manifestation  of  stammer- 
ing, and  is  never  the  cause  of  the  defect.  It  is  itself 
indirectly  induced  by  the  failure  of  the  auditory 
image;  but  when  the  auditory  image  appears,  the 
pseudo-spasm  is  at  an  end. 

Stammering  due  to  Distortion  of  the  Verbal 

Imagery 

In  some  cases  the  afferent  sensations  from  physical 
stammering  impress  themselves  upon  the  memory  of 
the  stammerer  and  distort  his  verbal  imagery.  His 
verbal  images  of  words  are  then  perverted  by  kinaes- 
thetic images  of  labial  or  Hngual  pressure,  or  by 
images  of  recurring  articulation.     It  can  therefore  be 


270         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

said  with  truth  that  it  is  in  certain  cases  more  difficult 
for  the  stammerer  to  think  some  words  than  it  is  for 
him  to  think  others;   his  difficulty  is  not  necessarily 
conffiied  to  their  enunciation.     In  thinking,  he  may 
ffiid  that  his  verbal  imagery  is  at  times  somewhat  con- 
strained by  the  disappearance  of  the  auditory  nucleus ; 
but  this  imagery  may  be  also  encumbered  by  mental 
feeHngs  of  muscular  effort  and  labored  articulation, 
the  consonant  appearing  in  thought  much  as  it  appears 
in    speech.     It    is    probable    that    this    articulatory 
stammering  occurs  in  the  mental  words  of  the  amnesic 
stammerer  only  when   the   auditory  image  fails   to 
appear   in   the   mind.     It  would   be   the   invariable 
concomitant  of  a  particular  mental  word  if  the  word 
invariably     occasioned     difficulty.       However,     the 
stammerer  usually  has  difficulty  only  under  certain 
conditions ;    hence   he  may   speak   a   word  fluently 
more  frequently  than  he  stammers  upon  it,  and  the 
sensations  from  stammering  are  offset  by  the  more 
frequent  feeHngs  of  free  articulation. 

The  replies  to  the  writer's  questionnaire  show  that 
mental  stammering  exists  in  a  majority  of  cases. 
The  correspondents  were  not  asked,  however,  to 
differentiate  kinassthetic  stammering  from  auditory 
amnesia.  Either  phenomenon  is  mental  stammering, 
but  the  average  non-psychologist  could  not  be  expected 
to  give  rehable  information  concerning  the  extent  to 
which  the  conditions  exist  independently  of  each  other. 


STAMMERING  271 

The  voluntary  imitating  of  stammering  or  stuttering 
at  times  effects  a  perversion  of  the  kinaesthetic  and  au- 
ditory verbal  imagery.  Since  the  verbal  image  is  par- 
amount in  determining  the  nature  of  the  spoken  word, 
the  simulant  then  becomes  a  stammerer  in  reahty,  and 
pays  the  penalty  for  his  folly  by  serving  as  a  butt  for 
other  witlings.  When  stammering  is  induced  by  imita- 
tion, it  does  not  assume  the  amnesic  form ;  the  speech- 
derangement  is  occasioned  by  the  distortion  of  the 
verbal  imagery,  and  not  by  failure  of  "  internal 
hearing."  The  act  of  imitating  stammering  affects 
the  kinaesthetic  images  more  directly,  but  it  probably 
affects  the  auditory  imagery  also,  when  this  happens 
to  be  strong.  It  seems  not  unhkely  that  auditory 
imagery  is  weak  in  persons  that  acquire  stammer- 
ing through  voluntary  imitation.  If  the  auditory 
imagery  were  weak,  it  would  not  easily  counteract 
the  effect  of  a  slight  perversion  of  the  motor 
memory.  On  the  other  hand,  it  might  be  argued 
that  if  the  auditory  imagery  were  strong,  it 
would  itself  be  more  easily  distorted.  However,  the 
auditory  imagery  is  rectified  by  the  acoustic  impres- 
sions that  the  stammerer  receives  when  Hstening  to  the 
speech  of  other  persons.  His  kinaesthetic  imagery  is 
probably  not  corrected  by  these  impressions. 

It  seems  improbable  that  the  mere  act  of  imitating 
stammering  or  stuttering  should  effect  organic  changes 
in  the   brain-cells   or   fibres.     The   act  of   imitating 


272         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

stuttering  might  perhaps  induce  an  exalted  excita- 
bihty  of  the  motor  centres  concerned  in  speech,  and 
there  would  then  result  a  species  of  reflex  stuttering. 
It  seems  unlikely,  however,  that  such  a  condition 
occurs.  The  cause  is  more  probably  psychological. 
But  if  even  a  temporary  disturbance  in  the  motor 
centres  were  to  exist,  a  perversion  of  the  speech-im- 
agery might  ensue,  and  the  impediment  would  then 
be  estabHshed. 

Acquired  stammering  is,  in  most  cases,  soon  con- 
firmed by  the  development  of  fear  and  by  mental 
confusion  resulting  from  the  attempt  to  avoid  difficult 
words  by  the  use  of  synonyms.  These  complicating 
causes  will  be  discussed  in  the  two  succeeding  chapters. 

Stammering  is  often  acquired  by  children  as  the 
result  of  association  with  other  stammerers.  What- 
ever a  child  learns,  he  learns  chiefly  through  imitation. 
If  those  around  him  speak  English,  he  speaks  EngHsh. 
If  those  around  him  use  provincialisms,  he  uses 
provincialisms.  If  those  around  him  stammer,  he 
learns  to  stammer  also.  To  him  stammering  may, 
indeed,  appear  as  a  normal  mode  of  speech  —  or  it 
might  if  he  were  able  to  reflect  upon  the  matter. 
What  really  happens  is  that  he  hears  stammering,  and 
acquires  distorted  images  of  speech  by  the  same 
process  that  would  under  other  conditions  inculcate 
normal  verbal  imagery.  With  his  imagery  dis- 
torted, he  must  stammer  as  a  consequence.     When  the 


STAMMERING  273 

child  is  associated  with  both  stammerers  and  normal 
speakers,  he  may  acquire  either  natural  or  abnormal 
speech.  The  matter  will  be  determined  entirely  by 
the  nature  of  the  speech  of  the  persons  from  whom 
he  acquires  the  greater  part  of  his  instruction  or 
whom  he  imitates  most  frequently. 

A  child's  mental  imagery  may  become  distorted 
through  association,  even  after  he  has  acquired  a 
thoroughly  norm.al  utterance.  If  he  comes  into  fre- 
quent contact  with  stammerers  at  the  age  of  six 
or  seven,  his  speech  may  become  affected  through  in- 
voluntary imitation.  It  is  the  auditory  imagery  that 
is  first  affected ;  but  the  kinassthetic  imagery  may  be 
indirectly  affected  by  the  fact  that  the  auditor  takes 
the  words  of  the  speaker,  as  Bain  expresses  it,  into  a 
"vocal  embrace."  Ultimately  both  forms  of  imagery 
must  become  affected,  for  the  child  feels  his  stam- 
mering, even  if  this  is  originally  induced  by  auditory 
cues.^ 

It  follows  from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  one's 
verbal  imagery  might  become  distorted  as  the  result 
of   a   speech-disturbance    due    to   purely    temporary 

^  Children  have,  of  course,  a  decided  propensity  for  imitating  most 
of  the  abnormal  conditions  that  they  observe;  and  they  imitate 
chorea,  epilepsy,  etc.,  just  as  readily  as  they  imitate  stammering.  It 
is  related  of  Boerhaave  that  he  once  had  to  contend  with  an  epidemic 
of  epilepsy  at  the  Haarlem  Orphan  Asylum.  He  had  several  pairs  of 
red-hot  tongs  prepared  in  a  huge  brazier  in  one  of  the  halls.  He  then 
called  the  children  together,  and  told  them  that  he  had  given  orders 


274         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

causes.  After  the  disappearance  of  the  inducing 
cause,  the  impediment  might  persist  as  a  consequence 
of  the  distorted  imagery.  Stammering  would  then  be 
due,  as  it  were,  to  self-imitation,  and  would  continue 
in  spite  of  the  absence  of  auditory  amnesia.  When 
stammering  of  this  kind  exists,  it  probably  manifests 
itself  impartially  under  all  conditions.  When  there 
is  variability  in  the  impediment,  the  disturbance  is 
complicated  by  other  causes. 

There  remains  now  only  one  of  the  pecuHarities  of 
stammering  to  be  accounted  for  —  the  fact  that  the 
disturbance  usually  makes  its  appearance  during  child- 
hood. The  primary  reason  for  this  fact  is  that  the 
child  is  more  susceptible  during  his  early  years  to  those 
causes  that  induce  stammering.  One  of  the  most 
prolific  causes  of  stammering  is  fright.  The  child  is 
exposed  to  this  cause  on  account  of  his  inexperience. 
Objects  and  occasions  that  induce  fright  in  early  years 
have  no  such  effect  in  later  life,  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  better  understood. 

Infectious  fevers  are  also  among  the  principal  cause 

for  all  of  them  that  had  epileptic  fits  in  future  to  be  promptly  branded. 
This  somewhat  questionable  procedure  apparently  terminated  the 
epidemic  (see  Mosso,  "Die  Furcht,"  p.  233).  Similar  epidemics  of 
imitative  stammering  seem  to  occur  at  times  in  different  communities. 
To  explain  this  involuntary  imitation  one  must,  of  course,  explain  the 
morbid  imitative  propensity  as  well  as  the  mental  process  by  which 
the  imitation  proceeds. 


STAMMERING  275 

of  stammering.  These  fevers  generally  occur  during 
the  earUer  years  of  one's  life.  Measles,  scarlet  fever, 
chicken  pox,  etc.,  are  usually  the  illnesses  of  childhood. 
It  would  be  safe  to  say  that,  with  the  average  person, 
a  majority  of  the  infectious  fevers  that  he  suffers 
during  lifetime  occur  before  he  is  ten  years  of  age. 

During  the  early  years  of  Hfe,  when  the  child  is 
susceptible  to  the  inducing  causes  of  stammering,  the 
mental  imagery  is  in  an  unstable  condition,  and  is 
probably  for  this  reason  more  Hable  to  derangement. 
Loss  of  one  of  the  senses  during  early  childhood  re- 
sults in  total  obHteration  of  the  corresponding  mental 
imagery.  This  fact  shows  that  the  mental  images  are 
only  superficially  enregistered  in  the  cells.  It  seems, 
therefore,  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a  relatively  slight 
disturbance  may  affect  the  mental  imagery.  More- 
over, if  the  child  inherits  weak  auditory  imagery,  he 
is  already  predisposed  to  stammering,  and  naturally 
succumbs  to  the  first  inducing  cause. 

The  infrequent  appearance  of  stammering  in  adult 
life  is  accounted  for  by  the  more  secure  estabhshment 
of  the  kinassthetic  verbal  imagery.  A  minor  form 
of  auditory  amnesia  is  less  likely  to  affect  oral  speech 
after  a  person  has  had  twenty  or  thirty  years  of 
practice  in  the  correct  use  of  the  speech-organs.  This 
latter  circumstance  affords  an  explanation  for  the  fact 
that  functional  aphasia  occurs  more  frequently  in 
children  during  fevers  than  it  does  in  adults.     Greater 


276         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

clearness  of  the  auditory  imagery  in  girls  may  account 
for  the  fact  that  these  functional  disturbances  are  less 
common  among  them  than  among  boys.^  However, 
stammering  can  develop  at  any  time  in  Hfe  if  the  audi- 
tory amnesia  is  sufficiently  severe  and  the  patient  is 
an  audito-moteur.  All  that  is  necessary  is  that  there 
shall  be  temporary  auditory  amnesia  without  kinaes- 
thetic  verbal  amnesia.  The  patient  then  knows 
what  word  he  wishes  to  use,  and  he  knows  what  the 
word  m.eans.  He  has  a  clear  kinaesthetic  image 
that  permits  him  to  commence  its  articulation, 
but  no  auditory  image  to  enable  him  to  continue. 
Whenever  this  condition  occurs,  stammering  results. 
It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  the  inception  of 
stammering  be  confined  to  the  early  years  of  life; 
in  some  cases  the  speech-disturbance  does  not  begin 
till  after  the  fortieth  year.  The  reasons,  however, 
have  been  stated  why  the  impediment  generally  makes 
its  appearance  during  childhood. 

A  remark  may  be  made  at  this  point  concerning  the 
acumen  of  the  average  stammerer.  It  is  sometimes 
thought  by  ignorant  persons  that  the  stammerer 
is  not  particularly  robust  in  intelligence ;  but  the  belief 
is  without  foundation.  The  stammerer  is  not  usually 
mentally  deficient,  though  in  many  respects  he  may 
appear  eccentric.  His  eccentricity  is  due  solely  to  his 
*  See  Wyllie,  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  p.  391. 


STAMMERING  277 

stammering.  He  frequently  uses  odd  phrases  and 
circumlocutions  in  order  to  avoid  difficult  words, 
and  in  this  way  may  appear  somewhat  outre  to 
persons  that  do  not  understand  his  motives.  The 
stammerer  sometimes  seems  to  be  actuated  by  vacil- 
lating purposes,  and  in  this  circumstance  may  appear 
eri;atic.  In  such  cases  he  has  a  dual  purpose  in  view  ; 
and  one  purpose  —  which  is  not  manifest  to  the  casual 
observer  —  is  to  avoid  stammering  at  any  cost.  He 
appears  erratic  merely  because  his  purposes  are  not 
fully  understood. 

The  fact  that  the  stammerer  is  subject  to  temporary 
auditory  anmesia  under  particular  conditions  does 
not  in  the  least  mihtate  against  his  intelligence.  Even 
if  the  auditory  amnesia  were  plenary  and  permanent, 
the  mental  faculties  would  probably  remain  un- 
impaired. The  mere  absence  of  a  particular  form  of 
mental  imagery  does  not  affect  the  general  intelligence. 
If  evidence  were  wanting  on  this  point  one  might 
cite  the  case  of  Hellen  Keller.  This  noted  deaf- 
blind  subject  is  possessed  of  exceptional  intelligence 
despite  the  fact  that  her  mind  is  almost  exclusively 
kinaesthetic  and  tactual. 

So  far  as  intelligence  is  concerned,  stammerers  are 
normal  persons.  They  probably  vary  between  the 
two  extremes  just  as  do  persons  of  normal  speech. 
Frequently  stammering  is  one  of  the  degenerative 
marks  of  genius.     In  his  ''  Man  of  Genius, "  Lombroso 


278         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

cites  the  following  men  as  stammerers :  Aristotle, 
iEsop,  Demosthenes,  Alcibiades,  Cato  of  Utica,  Virgil, 
Manzoni,  Erasmus,  Malherbe,  Charles  Lamb,  Turenne, 
Erasmus  Darwin,  Charles  Darwin,  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn, the  philosopher;  Charles  V,  Romiti,  Cardan, 
and  TartagHa. 

Chervin  ^  cites  Boissy  d'Anglas,  Camille  DesmouHns, 
and  the  artist  David  as  stammerers.  Charles  Kingsley 
and  Martin  Tupper  were  also  stammerers.  With  so 
many  of  the  world's  greatest  geniuses  among  stam- 
merers, one  might  almost  regard  stammering  as  an 
accomplishment  rather  than  a  defect. 

^  "  Begaiement  et  autres  maladies  fonctionnelles  de  la  parole," 
3d  ed.,  p.  32. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MENTAL  CONFUSION  IN   STAMMERING 

The  auditory  amnesia  that  we  have  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapter  is  the  proximate  cause  of  stam- 
mering. There  are,  however,  two  collateral  causes  — 
mental  confusion  and  fear  —  that  complicate  the  dis- 
order. Mental  confusion  will  be  the  subject  of  the 
present  chapter. 

When  the  stammerer  finds  himself  suddenly  checked 
in  the  utterance  of  a  word,  he  frequently  attempts  to 
elude  the  word  by  the  use  of  synonyms.  This  ruse 
may  succeed  if  an  easy  synonym  is  at  once  forth- 
coming; but  frequently  the  synonym  that  suggests 
itself  is  no  easier  than  the  word  that  has  been  re- 
jected. In  this  case  there  may  ensue  a  veritable 
avalanche  of  thought  to  which  no  human  speech- 
organs  could  give  expression.  The  stammerer  is 
then  at  a  standstill  till  the  original  word  or  a  synonym 
is  finally  expressed  in  clear-cut  mental  imagery. 

To  take  a  specific  example :  The  stammerer  at- 
tempts to  say  the  word  Thursday,  but  owing  to  audi- 
tory amnesia  he  finds  himself  unable  to  pronounce  it. 
Immediately  he  decides  to  substitute  another  expres- 

279 


28o         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

sion  for  the  refractory  word,  and  while  articulation 
remains  in  abeyance,  numberless  periphrases  flash 
through  his  mind, —  ''The  day  after  to-morrow," 
" In  a  couple  of  days,"  " In  a  few  days,"  ''In  two  days," 
"Perhaps  Wednesday  or  the  next  day."  If  none  of 
these  expressions  are  satisfactory,  the  stammerer 
may  reconstruct  the  whole  sentence  —  and  even  pre- 
ceding sentences — in  order  to  circumvent  the  difficulty, 
or  he  may  come  back  to  his  original  word  and  struggle 
with  it  till  he  finally  utters  it.  During  this  bewilder- 
ment the  stammerer  frequently  goes  through  all 
sorts  of  contortions  in  an  attempt  to  express  verbal 
thoughts  that  are  chaotic  to  the  last  degree.  The 
effort  may  continue  where  it  started  with  the  original 
word,  the  tongue  pressing  vigorously  against  the 
teeth;  or  each  expression  as  it  is  thought  —  far  too 
rapidly  for  utterance  —  may  give  rise  to  some  rudi- 
mentary change  in  the  disposition  of  the  articulative 
organs. 

It  is  manifest  that  no  word  could  possibly  be  pro- 
nounced under  mental  conditions  such  as  those 
described.  The  word  Thursday  cannot  be  articu- 
lated because  it  is  no  longer  thought.  The  cir- 
cumlocutions that  suggest  themselves  flash  through 
the  mind  so  rapidly  that  no  speech-organs  could 
ever  express  them.  The  stammerer  thinks  a  whole 
language  in  a  moment  in  much  the  same  way  as  a 
drowning  man  recalls  half  a  lifetime  in  the  last  few 


MENTAL  CONFUSION  IN  STAMMERING     281 

seconds  of  consciousness.  The  verbal  image  is 
paramount  in  determining  the  nature  of  the  words 
expressed  ;  hence  if  no  clear-cut  verbal  image  is  in  the 
mind,  no  word  can  be  orally  produced.  It  is  no  more 
possible  for  the  speech-organs  to  produce  a  word  that 
is  not  clearly  expressed  in  verbal  imagery  than  it  is 
possible  for  a  gramophone  to  produce  words  that  are 
not  present  on  the  record.  The  gramophone  repro- 
duces words  as  they  are  spoken  into  it :  the  speech- 
organs  reproduce  words  as  they  are  dictated  by  the 
verbal  imagery.     The  verbal  imagery  is  absolute. 

In  cases  similar  to  the  one  just  cited,  the  multiple 
thought  (as  we  may  call  the  profuse  and  entangled  im- 
agery just  described)  is  a  collateral  cause  of  stammer- 
ing, being  itself  induced  by  the  amnesia.  But  in  many 
instances  the  multiple  thought  is  the  sole  cause  of  the 
immediate  disturbance.  The  stammerer  is  speaking 
with  apparent  ease  and  fluency,  when  suddenly  there 
looms  up  before  him  a  word  that  has  formerly  caused  dif- 
ficulty and  that  he  therefore  endeavors  to  avoid .  There 
then  occurs  the  same  frantic  search  for  synonyms,  the 
same  avalanche  of  thought,  and  the  same  stoppage  in 
speech.  But  the  disturbance  is  not  induced  by  audi- 
tory amnesia :  it  is  occasioned  by  the  fact  that  the 
speech-organs  cannot  express  the  chaos  of  the  mind. 

Here  we  may  take  another  concrete  example : 
The  stammerer  wishes  to  say,  ''How  do  you  like  that 
picture?"    As  he  utters  the  word  you  or  like  he  fore- 


282         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

sees  disaster  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  Articulate 
speech  is  then  and  there  at  an  end.  The  word  that 
is  being  uttered  becomes  abortive,  its  mental  image 
being  extruded  from  the  mind  by  the  search  for  syn- 
onyms. Innumerable  words  —  sketch,  paintings  land- 
scape, masterpiece,  canvas,  production,  performance, 
and  a  dozen  others  —  flash  through  the  mind.  If  the 
stammerer  finds  one  that  he  can  articulate,  he  is  able 
to  proceed.  He  then  frequently  endeavors  to  hide 
his  dilemma  by  recasting  the  sentence.  The  question 
then  becomes  ''What  do  you  think  of  that  painting  ?" 
''Does  that  landscape  suit  your  taste?"  "Is  that 
canvas  to  your  Hking?"  etc.  If  the  stammerer  is 
Httle  embarrassed,  he  may  give  no  evidence  of  his 
predicament.  He  pauses  quietly,  selects  the  desired 
word,  and  continues  when  he  has  the  thought  satis- 
factorily framed. 

There  is  often  a  tangle  of  visual  images  participating 
in  the  multiple  thought.  These  may  be  visual  images 
of  words,  or  visual  images  of  objects.  The  stammerer 
is  in  a  shop,  let  us  say,  where  he  has  to  make  a  number 
of  purchases.  He  attempts  to  ask  for  a  particular 
article,  but  stammers  hopelessly  when  he  endeavors 
to  name  it.  Thereupon  he  decides  to  ask  for  one  of 
the  other  articles  first,  and  to  essay  the  refractory  word 
at  a  more  propitious  moment.  The  chances  are  that 
the  utmost  mental  confusion  will  result.  Visual 
images  of  the  different  objects  and  mental  images  of 


MENTAL   CONFUSION  IN  STAMMERING      283 

words  rush  through  the  mind  in  perfect  chaos.  Dur- 
ing this  bewilderment,  stammering  must  of  course 
continue;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  speaker  will 
not  be  understood  when  he  at  last  gives  utterance  to 
some  half-smothered  expression. 

We  may  consider  another  case  in  which  visual 
images  are  present  to  add  to  the  bewilderment. 
The  stammerer  is  asked  the  way  to  a  certain  street 
or  building,  and  there  are  different  routes  that  he 
may  describe  to  the  inquirer.  The  stammerer  starts 
to  give  directions  for  a  particular  route,  but  finds 
after  a  few  sentences  that  he  is  hopelessly  stranded 
on  the  name  of  a  street  he  wishes  to  mention.  It  is 
not  essential,  however,  that  this  particular  street  be 
referred  to,  for  an  alternative  route  may  be  described. 
The  stammerer  then  vacillates  between  the  decision 
to  proceed  with  the  original  directions  and  the  decision 
to  describe  an  alternative  route ;  and  there  occurs  in 
his  mind  a  tumult  of  thought  in  which  verbal  images 
and  visual  images  of  streets  and  buildings  are  tumbled 
together  in  hopeless  confusion.  Meanwhile  the  phys- 
ical stammering  probably  finds  expression  in  a  motor 
circle.  The  stammering  terminates  only  when  clear 
verbal  images  arise  to  mediate  the  expression  of  clear 
oral  speech. 

Frequently,  during  stammering,  verbal  thought  is 
inhibited  rather  than  confounded.  The  mind  is  then 
a  blank,  or  the  entire  field  of  consciousness  is  engaged 


284         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

by  a  visual  sensation  or  a  visual  image.  The  stam- 
merer is  asked  the  name  of  a  particular  book,  let  us 
suppose,  but  is  afraid  of  certain  words  that  occur 
in  the  title.  He  makes  no  attempt  to  reply,  but 
stands  mentally  transfixed,  gazing  at  any  object  that 
happens  to  be  before  him.  Or  it  may  happen  that  a 
visual  image  gets  to  the  focus  of  attention,  and  the 
stammerer  then  stares  helplessly  at  a  mental  picture 
of  the  book  or  a  visual  image  of  its  title.  For  a 
minute  or  more  he  makes  no  attempt  to  answer  the 
question,  but  deliberately  suppresses  the  auditory- 
motor  images  of  the  requisite  words.  Usually  the 
mind  is  more  proKfic,  and  the  stammerer  is  able  to 
resort  to  synonyms.  It  might  seem  that  synonyms 
would  be  unavailing  in  the  present  case ;  but  this  is 
not  necessarily  true.  Often  the  stammerer  would  not 
hesitate  to  pervert  the  title  in  quoting  it  (believing 
that  any  irregularities  will  be  attributed  to  error),  or 
to  improvise  a  title  for  himself,  or  to  plead  entire 
ignorance  in  the  matter. 

In  many  cases  of  stammering  the  impediment  is 
in  large  part  due  to  confusion  or  inhibition  of  thought. 
It  then  frequently  happens  that  the  impediment  dis- 
appears almost  entirely  in  reading  and  reciting. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  stammerer  is  not 
obliged  to  select  his  words;  consequently  mental  con- 
fusion is  eliminated.  Most  stammerers  speak  with 
less  difficulty  when  alone.     The  greater  fluency  is  in 


MENTAL   CONFUSION  IN  STAMMERING      285 

this  case  largely  attributable  to  the  fact  that  the 
speaker  does  not  try  to  avoid  stammering,  and  conse- 
quently does  not  become  bewildered  in  his  effort 
to  avoid  difficult  words. 

Another  possible  explanation  for  the  stammerer's 
occasional  fluency  in  reading  has  already  been  sug- 
gested. The  visual  impressions  may  arouse  the  re- 
fractory auditory  images  by  association,  or  they  may 
directly  arouse  the  kinaesthetic  images.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  abihty  to  read  aloud  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  among  aphasic  patients,  —  even  when  they 
are  quite  unable  to  speak  spontaneously.  In  such 
cases  the  explanation  is  the  summation  of  stimuli  or 
the  arousal  of  refractory  images  by  sensations  with 
which  they  are  associated.  This  same  explanation 
would  apply  to  the  case  of  the  stammerer.  It  does 
not,  however,  account  for  the  stammerer's  occasional 
ability  to  recite,  so  we  must  conclude  that  the  ehmina- 
tion  of  bewilderment  is  also  an  important  factor. 

With  a  great  many  stammerers  there  is  no  mitiga- 
tion of  the  impediment  in  reading  and  reciting.  In 
some  cases,  indeed,  the  disturbance  may  be  aggra- 
vated. The  exacerbation  is  produced  by  the  stam- 
merer's fear  and  confusion.  The  increased  fear  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  stammerer  finds  himself 
the  centre  of  attention,  and  to  the  fact  that  he  an- 
ticipates difficulty  with  particular  words.  The 
confusion  is  occasioned  by  the  stammerer's  exploring 


286         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

in  advance  in  search  of  difficulty.  His  attention 
is  not  concentrated  upon  the  words  he  is  actually 
pronouncing :  it  is  divided  between  these  words 
and  those  that  he  knows  are  to  follow.  The 
stammerer,  moreover,  will  often  substitute  words 
even  in  reading,  and  will  interpolate  phrases  of  his 
own.  "Any  port  in  a  storm"  seems  to  be  the  motto. 
This  attempt  to  paraphrase  difficult  passages  leads, 
of  course,  to  entangled  thought  that  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed. 

The  enhancement  or  mitigation  of  the  impediment 
in  reading  and  reciting  is  determined  chiefly  by  the 
stammerer's  mental  attitude.  When  attention  is 
concentrated  upon  the  words  that  are  being  spoken, 
stammering  is  limited  to  the  amnesic  form.  (The 
amnesia  may,  of  course,  be  augmented  to  some  extent 
by  fear.)  When  the  stammerer  endeavors  to  struggle 
against  the  inevitable  by  paraphrasing  passages  and 
meeting  trouble  in  the  distance,  the  impediment  is 
indirectly  induced  by  mental  confusion,  as  well  as 
being  directly  induced  by  auditory  amnesia. 

A  too  rapid  production  of  verbal  thought  has  been 
considered  by  many  investigators  to  be  the  proximate 
cause  of  stammering.  But  the  stoppage  of  speech 
that  they  have  considered  is  usually  due  to  mental 
chaos  rather  than  to  a  rapid  production  of  clearly 
thought  verbal  images.  These  two  conditions,  mental 
chaos  and  a  slightly  too  rapid  production  of  verbal 


MENTAL  CONFUSION  IN  STAMMERING      287 

images,  must  be  differentiated.  When  the  verbal 
images  succeed  one  another  too  rapidly  for  utterance, 
cluttering,  and  not  a  stoppage  of  speech,  results. 
WylHe  refers  to  the  former  defect  in  the  following 
words : 

"When  the  words  crowd  upon  each  other  so  much  as  to 
interfere  with  their  distinct  articulation,  the  condition  has  some- 
times been  called  ' Cluttering. '"  ^ 

Wyllie  then  quotes  Dr.  Clouston's  description  of 
a  case  of  this  kind : 

"Although  'articulation  is  normal  when  slowly  performed, 
the  moment  ordinary  speech  begins,  the  m.ental  coordination 
is  lost,  and  we  have  a  torrent  of  half -articulated  words,  follow- 
ing each  other  like  peas  running  out  of  a  spout.'"  ^ 

This  condition  does  not  often  occur  with  persons 
of  normal  intelKgence.  It  is  evident  that  the  will 
to  speak  is  present,  but  that  the  speech-mechanism 
is  unequal  to  the  task  imposed  upon  it.  When 
stammering  occurs  as  the  result  of  multiple  thought, 
it  is  not  willed  that  the  rapidly  thought  verbal  images 
shall  be  enunciated.  The  stammerer's  purpose  is 
primarily  to  select  a  word  to  which  he  beheves  he  can 
give  utterance ;  and  the  mental  synonyms  that 
occur  in  thought  are  as  a  rule  not  even  incipiently 
articulated.  The  images  pass  so  rapidly  through 
the  mind  that  they  could  not  be  expressed  even  if 

1  "Disorders  of  Speech,"  p.  139.  2  i^qq  ^//^  p   -^^q^ 


288         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

they  occurred  in  pure  kinaesthetic  form.  Quite  fre- 
quently these  verbal  images  appear  in  visual  form, 
and  hence  have  no  direct  effect  upon  the  speech-organs. 
Multiple  thought  is  mental  chaos,  and  it  is  not  the 
same  mental  condition  that  gives  rise  to  cluttering. 

A  condition  of  speechlessness  frequently  occurs  in 
normal  speakers  as  the  result  of  mental  confusion. 
It  is  often  the  concomitant  of  emotional  excitement ; 
and  the  person  is  speechless  with  fear,  anger,  or  dis- 
may. Speechlessness  occurs  either  because  there  is  a 
failure  of  verbal  thought  or  because  the  verbal  thought 
is  too  tumultuous  and  chaotic  to  find  articulate  ex- 
pression. This  emotional  condition  frequently  gives 
rise  to  temporary  "stammering"  in  children.  The 
child  attempts  to  describe  something  that  has  deeply 
impressed  him.  He  gasps  and  gesticulates,  but  says 
nothing.  This  inhibition  is  produced  by  a  tangle  of 
thought  that  probably  subsists  for  the  most  part  in 
visual  terms.  The  condition  is  not  induced  by  amnesia, 
and  the  child  is  able  to  speak  with  fluency  if  he  is 
compelled  to  calm  himself  before  making  the  attempt. 

The  tendency  to  think  in  visual  terms  is  not  in 
itself  a  cause  of  stammering.  There  are  numberless 
persons  that  think  almost  exclusively  in  visual  images, 
but  they  are  not  necessarily  troubled  with  disorders 
of  speech.  The  practice  of  thinking  in  visual  terms 
may  be  a  serious  bar  to  fluency  in  speech,  for  the 
habitual  visualizer  does  not  always  readily  recall  the 


MENTAL   CONFUSION  IN   STAMMERING      289 

words  necessary  for  the  expression  of  thought.  This 
paucity  of  verbal  images  gives  rise,  however,  merely 
to  hesitancy  in  speech  and  not  to  genuine  stammering. 

It  is  well  for  the  stammerer  to  bear  in  mind  that 
any  articulate  sounds  produced  by  the  speech-organs 
are,  in  general,  reproductions  of  the  verbal  imagery.^ 
The  articulative  mechanism  does  not  reproduce  all 
that  is  passing  in  the  mind,  but  whatever  is  produced 
is  mentally  initiated.  When  the  stammerer  prolongs 
a  consonant  in  speech,  he  prolongs  it  also  in  thought. 
When  he  repeats  a  word,  syllable,  or  consonant  in 
speech,  he  repeats  it  in  thought.  The  prolongation 
of  the  consonant  is  due  to  the  amnesia.  But  the 
repetition  —  especially  of  syllables  and  words  —  is 
usually  purely  voluntary.  The  stammerer  makes 
the  repetition  in  order  to  overcome  the  resistance,  as 
it  were,  by  the  sheer  momentum  of  the  articulation. 
But  the  speech  reflects  the  thought,  and  the  stam- 
merer will  not  always  find  that  this  mental  repetition 
affords  the  best  method  of  procedure. 

It  is  possible  that  even  cluttering  may  in  some  cases 
represent  the  verbal  imagery,  and  that  the  cluttering 
is  subjective  as  well  as  objective.  A  species  of  clutter- 
ing sometimes  occurs  with  the  stammerer  even  when  he 
knows  clearly  what  words  he  wishes  to  utter.  Under 
the  influence  of  fear  the  words  are  produced  (or,  more 

^  This  remark  does  not  apply  to  some  extraneous  sounds  that 
may  accompany  physical  stammering. 


290         THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

accurately,  smothered)  so  rapidly  that  it  seems  as 
though  they  must  be  initiated  by  a  sort  of  generic 
verbal  concept  instead  of  by  a  series  of  verbal  images 
clearly  expressed  in  the  mind.  The  stammerer 
gasps  out  the  first  few  words  of  the  sentence  and 
is  then  hopelessly  checked  by  amnesia  or  by  an  in- 
abihty  to  decide  between  repeating  the  sentence  and 
continuing  from  the  point  he  has  already  reached. 
No  general  statement  can  be  made  as  to  whether  this 
cluttering  is  mental  or  physical.  In  some  cases  the 
speech  may  exactly  represent  the  verbal  imagery; 
in  others  the  verbal  imagery  may  be  clear,  though  it 
cannot  be  clearly  expressed  because  it  is  too  rapidly 
produced  and  because  fear  paralyzes  the  musculature. 


CHAPTER   IX 
FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION 

Fear  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  mediate 
causes  of  stammering.  The  stammerer's  fear  is 
somewhat  similar  to  stage-fright.  It  takes  the  form 
of  an  all-consuming  dread  that  effectively  deprives 
the  speaker  of  muscular  control.  This  fear  is  difficult 
for  the  non-stammerer  to  understand.  It  is  not 
merely  the  fear  of  incurring  ridicule,  or  the  fear  of 
making  oneself  ridiculous ;  it  is  rather  the  fear  of 
"travailing  with  unborn  thoughts."  It  is  one  of  the 
subjective  aspects  of  stammering  that  only  the  stam- 
merer himself  can  comprehend. 

Schulthess  has  compared  the  stammerer's  fear  to 
hydrophobia,  and  he  named  the  condition  "Phono- 
phobia,"  or  ''Lalophobia."  Wyneken,  having  regard 
to  the  stammerer's  fear  of  particular  words,  de- 
nominated him  a  "speech-doubter"  {Sprachzweifler) } 
He  believed  the  stammering  to  be  due  largely  to  a 
wavering  of  the  will  during  speech ;  this  vacillation 
being  caused  in  its  turn  by  the  stammerer's  lack  of 
confidence  in  his  own  speech-organs.     Strictly  speak- 

*  "Ueber  das  Stotterii  iind  dessen  Heilung,"  p.  20. 
291 


292      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

ing,  this  latter  condition  is  not  fear;  it  is  inhibition 
of  the  will  due  to  auto-suggestion.  Both  fear  and 
auto-suggestion  are  potent  factors  in  the  indirect 
production  of  stammering.  Denhardt,  in  his  ^^  Stottern 
eine  Psy chose,"  maintains  the  position  that  these 
factors  are  the  sole  causes  of  the  defect.  His  argu- 
ments are  interesting  and  well  worth  following. 

Denhardt  attempts  first  of  all  to  refute  the  current 
theory  that  stammering  is  due  to  a  failure  of  voice. 
He  declares  that  he  has  occasionally  seen  stammerers 
that  were  unable  to  articulate  isolated  consonants 
entirely  unattached  to  vocal  sound. ^  The  phenome- 
non that  Denhardt  describes  would  refute  the  "failure 
of  the  voice"  theory,  but  it  is  itself  readily  explained 
by  the  theory  adduced  in  this  monograph.  When  a 
person  articulates  the  consonant  h  (for  instance)  in 
the  physiological  alphabet,  he  produces  the  vowel 
en  souffle,  or  thinks  it  in  auditory  imagery  and  sup- 
presses its  oral  production.  If  the  auditory  image 
fails,  the  speaker  may  appear  to  stammer  even  on  a 
simple  articulatory  movement. 

The  auditory  image  attached  to  the  physiological 
consonant  is  not  necessarily  an  image  of  the  vowel- 
sound  that  is  associated  with  the  consonant  in  the 
common  alphabet.    It  may  be  an  image  of  the  short 

^  That  is,  a  consonant  in  the  physiological  alpkabet,  in  which  b, 
for  instance,  is  a  mere  explosive  movement  of  the  lips,  and  not  the 
word  be,  as  we  know  it  in  the  ordinary  alphabet. 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  293 

u  (u)  that  generally  follows  an  explosive  physiological 
consonant.  The  failure  of  this  image  would  account 
for  the  stammering.  If  one  were  to  stammer  on  a 
simple  movement  of  the  lips  that  is  kinaesthetically 
initiated,  he  would  stammer  at  the  end  of  words, 
and  would  stammer  in  smoking,  etc. 

Denhardt  then  attempts  to  refute  the  ''failure  of 
voice"  theory  by  showing  that  stammering  some- 
times occurs  when  the  speaker  is  making  the  transition 
from  the  vowel  to  the  consonant.     He  says :  ^ 

"  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  not  lacking  stammerers  that 
experience  difl&culty  in  making  the  transition  with  the  speech- 
organs  from  the  position  taken  by  the  vowel  to  that  required 
for  the  consonant;  consequently  they  repeat  the  vowel  once 
or  twice  in  the  form  of  a  short  '  af terstroke '  before  they  are  able 
to  seize  upon  the  consonant  that  completes  the  syllable.  As 
a  result  one  hears  something  like  Ka-ap  and  La-and,  instead  of 
Kap  and  Land" 

It  is  somewhat  strange  that  Denhardt  should 
interpret  these  symptoms  as  betokening  difficulty  in 
making  the  transition  from  the  vowel  to  the  consonant. 
The  symptoms  are  unquestionably  due  to  respiratory 
disturbances,  one  of  the  chief  features  of  physical 
stammering.  The  break  in  the  vowel  is  due  to  a 
sudden  inhibition  of  the  expiratory  current:  the 
weakening  of  the  air-column  permits  the  glottis  to 
close,  consequently  there  is  a  brief  interruption  in 

*  "Das  Stottern  eine  Psychose,"  p.  28. 


294       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

vocalization.  The  stoppage  of  the  expiratory  current 
is  due  to  a  fluttering  of  the  diaphragm,  —  one  of  the 
natural  concomitants  of  emotion. 

There  is  another  possible  explanation  for  this 
''catch"  in  the  vowel  that  Denhardt  describes.  The 
stammerer  may  vocaKze  from  purely  kinaesthetic  cues, 
but  so  long  as  he  cannot  recall  the  auditory  image  he  is 
unable  to  produce  the  vowel-color.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  this  imperfect  enunciation  of  the  vowel 
has  been  described  by  Hunt  and  other  writers.  (See 
pp.  190-192.)  It  often  takes  the  form  of  an  inhibition 
of  the  second  element  of  a  diphthong.  As  a  rule,  the 
difficulty  is  directly  due  to  defects  of  the  auditory 
imagery;  but  it  is  never  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
stammerer  experiences  difficulty  in  articulating  the 
final  consonant.  ^ 

These  arguments  of  Denhardt  are  mentioned  chiefly 
because  they  are  based  upon  facts  that  seem,  if  only 
superficially  examined,  to  be  at  variance  with  the  theory 
advanced  in  this  monograph.  They  are  the  only  heter- 
odox facts  that  have  been  encountered,  and  it  has 
seemed  advisable  to  lose  no  time  in  disposing  of  them. 

Denhardt  refutes,  more  or  less  successfully,  the 
current  theory  that  stammering  is  due  to  a  failure  of 
voice.  He  then  defends  the  theory  that  stammering 
is  induced  solely  by  fear  and  auto-suggestion : 

"  If  one  asks  the  stammerer  why  he  is  unable  to  speak  fluently, 
hewillinmostcasesreceivethereply/ It  is  because  of  fear.'  .  .  . 


FEAR   AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  295 

If  one  goes  a  step  further  and  endeavors  to  assure  himself  of 
the  nature  of  this  fear  and  its  foundation,  he  will  regularly 
find  that  it  is  based  upon  the  stammerer's  belief  that  he  is 
unable  to  speak."  ^ 

"It  is  quite  immaterial  for  the  influence  of  the  disturbing 
belief  whether  or  not  it  has  any  foundation  in  fact.  But  the 
belief  has  with  the  stammerer  no  basis  in  reality,  for  under 
certain  circumstances  he  is  able  to  speak  with  consummate 


ease 


"  2 


"We  have  to  deal  with  a  delusion  that  has  driven  its  roots 
so  deeply  into  the  consciousness  of  the  stammerer  that  even  if 
it  should  leave  him  —  as  it  may  for  days,  weeks,  or  months 
together  —  it  invariably  returns ;  frequently,  too,  with  in- 
creased intensity." ' 

One  of  Denhardt's  chief  arguments  is  the  existence 
of  analogous  phobias.  He  cites  the  case  of  a  flute- 
player  that  experienced  the  same  difficulty  in  playing 
as  he  did  in  speaking: 

"When  he  had  to  play  a  solo  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ment, he  felt  himself  incapable  of  beginning  at  the  proper  in- 
stant. For  hours  before,  he  was  haunted  by  fear  of  the  dreaded 
moment ;  and  the  fear  increased  as  the  time  approached.  In 
his  room  he  could  perform  without  hesitation ;  but  in  the  con- 
cert hall,  a  few  hours  later,  this  had  become  an  impossibihty."  * 

"I  have  seen  stammering  in  piano-playing  on  several 
occasions,"  remarks  the  same  writer.  He  then  re- 
counts the  experience  of  a  young  lady : 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  144.  '  Loc.  cit.,  p.  144. 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  145.  ^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  178. 


296       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STA^IMERING 

''The  eye  would  explore  hastily  in  advance  of  the  hands, 
and  would  discover  difficulties  that  at  once  induced  fear  of 
failure.  The  nearer  she  approached  them,  the  greater  became 
her  fear  of  the  supposed  obstacles ;  and  at  the  critical  moment 
the  disturbing  influence  of  the  fear  effectually  prevented  the 
proper  execution  of  the  necessary  movements."  ^ 

Denhardt  then  gives  an  account  of  a  subject  that 
was  unable  to  write  if  some  one  were  watching  over 
his  shoulder : 

"Whenever  an  R  had  to  be  followed  by  a  vowel,  there  arose 
in  his  mind  the  thought  that  he  could  not  freely  execute  the 
necessary  writing-movements.  Like  the  stammerer,  he  per- 
formed all  kinds  of  superfluous  and  purposeless  movements. 
Finally  he  accomplished  his  task  by  separating  the  vowel  from 
the  initial  consonant  by  a  long  dash  {R  —  abe) .  When  he 
knew  himself  to  be  unobserved  he  experienced  no  difficulty 
with  any  combination,  not  excluding  Ra,  Ro,  etc."  ^ 

The  author  then  cites  two  cases  in  which  difficulty 
in  swallowing  was  due  to  delusional  belief,  —  to  a 
loss  of  confidence  in  the  ability  of  the  physical  organs 
to  perform  their  normal  functions.  He  says  of  one 
subject : 

"Upon  my  own  initiative  I  brought  him  to  the  belief  that 
he  had  incurred  the  difficulty  as  the  result  of  excessive  cigar- 
ette smoking.  Upon  his  relinquishing  the  cigarettes,  the 
trouble  disappeared.  '  Now  comes  the  stammering.  Although 
I  have  not  smoked  a  cigarette  since  the  improvement  in  my 
condition,  I  have  only  to  recall  my  former  troubles  in  order  to 

^  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  178-179.  ^  Loc.  cit.y  p.  179. 


FEAR   AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  297 

induce  difficulties  in  swallowing.     I  then  incur  a  relapse  for  a 
day."'i 

"The  next  case  is  of  a  little  different  nature.  A  gentleman 
was  accustomed  for  several  years  to  taking  all  liquids  from  a 
spoon,  believing  himself  to  be  unable  to  drink.  In  drinking 
from  the  spoon,  however,  he  executed  aU  the  movements  of 
deglutition  in  a  perfectly  normal  manner  —  proof  that  he  had 
lost  nothing  of  this  faculty  with  which  he  was  merely  afraid 
to  intrust  himself.  The  use  of  the  spoon  was  of  value  only  in 
so  far  as  it  exerted  a  favorable  influence  upon  his  imagination. 
The  effects  of  the  delusion  were  counteracted  by  the  confident 
belief  that  the  use  of  the  spoon  would  remove  difficulties  that 
might  otherwise  appear.  One  day,  after  a  long  and  trying 
march,  and  while  tormented  by  thirst,  he  rapidly  drank  a  glass 
of  beer  without  reflecting.  As  the  result  of  this  incident  he  re- 
gained his  lost  confidence  in  the  organs  of  deglutition ;  and  this 
confidence  did  not  thereafter  desert  him."  ^ 

Denhardt  concludes  the  recital  with  an  account  of  a 
man  that  had  lost  confidence  in  his  ability  to  use  his 
hands  in  the  presence  of  other  people.  While  using 
a  soup-spoon,  for  instance,  his  hands  would  tremble 
so  severely  that  he  became  practically  powerless. 
He  was  able  to  master  this  weakness  only  by  beginning 
the  meal  with  a  powerful  stimulant. 

These  morbid  fears  or  obsessions  are  common 
enough  in  pathology,  and  cases  similar  to  the  fore- 
going might  be  cited  indefinitely.  The  abnormal 
fears  are  known  as  phobias.  Many  of  them  have 
been  endowed  with  a  special  name.     ErytJirophohia  is 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  180.  2  Iq(.  f-ii^  p  jgj 


298       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

the  morbid  fear  of  blushing ;  klithrophobia,  or  klaus- 
trophobia,  is  the  fear  that  seizes  one  when  alone  in  a 
room;  agoraphobia  is  the  fear  of  crossing  open 
thoroughfares.  When  the  agoraphobic  patient  is 
compelled  to  cross  an  open  square  or  traverse  a  wide 
thoroughfare  or  bridge, — 

"There  ensues,  according  to  Westphal's  characteristic 
description,  an  inordinate  fear  —  a  veritable  death-terror  — 
accompanied  by  general  trembling,  an  oppression  of  the  chest, 
palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  sensations  of  chills  or  of  a  warm 
wave  mounting  to  the  head.  One  breaks  into  a  perspiration, 
and  stands  as  though  helplessly  paralyzed.  There  is  weakness 
of  the  limbs,  and  often  sparks  dance  before  the  eyes.  There  is 
humming  in  the  ears ;  there  is  nausea  and  complete  confusion."  ^ 

St.  Phar  refers  to  these  morbid  fears  in  the  following 
words :  ^ 

"  Pathological  fear  makes  its  appearance  in  the  most  diverse 
forms,  and  not  merely  as  agoraphobia.  One  person  cannot 
travel  by  train,  another  cannot  ride  in  an  electric  car,  or  in 
any  vehicle  at  all,  without  experiencing  these  conditions  of 
fear.  One  patient  is  attacked  by  this  abnormal  dread  during 
thunder-storms;  another  when  he  finds  himself  in  the  midst 
of  a  crowd,  or  when  he  is  in  a  theatre,  a  church,  or  in  a  room 
above  the  ground  floor,  or  in  a  tunnel.  Others  experience 
terror  when  the  weather  is  a  little  more  than  ordinarily  warm  or 
cold.  Abnormal  fears  are  particularly  likely  to  appear  under 
those  circumstances  in  which  normal  persons  experience  nor- 
mal fear,  as  in  accidents,  earthquakes,  fire,  flood,  and  danger  of 
any  kind  that  induces  emotional  disturbances  and  threatens 

1  Eulenburg,  Die  Woche,  March  17,  1906.  2  "Angst,"  pp.  4-5. 


FEAR  AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  299 

life  and  property.  In  short,  fear  is  extremely  multifarious. 
It  can  appear  in  connection  with  any  conceivable  circumstance ; 
and  it  reappears  usually  under  those  circumstances  that  were 
responsible  for  its  origin.  It  varies  with  the  same  patient, 
assuming  sometimes  a  more  malignant  and  sometimes  a  milder 
form." 

In  these  phobias  two  conditions  must  be  differen- 
tiated. There  is  the  simple  fear,  as  such;  that  is, 
the  mere  emotional  disturbance  :  and  there  is  the  emo- 
tion accompanied  by  an  obsession  or  delusional  belief. 
In  the  fear  of  thunder-storms,  only  the  emotional  dis- 
turbance is  present.  In  agoraphobia  there  is  abnormal 
fear  and  also  the  belief  in  one's  inability  to  cross  the 
thoroughfare.  When  both  the  fear  and  the  delusion 
are  present,  they  of  course  react  upon  each  other. 

The  phobias  are  either  due  to  some  unfortunate 
experience  accompanied  by  intense  emotion,  or  they 
are  simple  atavisms.  In  the  latter  case  they  are 
reverberations  of  racial  experience;  i.e.  they  are  in- 
stinctive fears.  In  either  case  the  emotion  is  aroused 
by  association.  When  the  fear  is  acquired,  the  associa- 
tion is  due  to  the  experience  of  the  individual.  When 
the  fear  is  instinctive,  the  association  is  due  to  racial 
experience.  This  matter  will  be  discussed  subse- 
quently at  greater  length. 

After  this  sKght  amplification  we  return  to  the 
subject  of  stammering  as  caused  by  phobia  and  delu- 
sional belief.  Denhardt  cites  the  morbid  fears  already 
mentioned ;   then  continues  : 


300       THE   PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

"  Supported  by  the  analogies  mentioned,  we  can  safely  state 
that  no  objection  need  be  feared  to  the  theory  already  pro- 
mulgated, —  that  stammering  is  a  psychosis  having  its  origin 
in  some  more  or  less  casual  incident  in  the  history  of  the  patient. 
This  psychosis  is  based  upon  a  delusion,  an  absolutely  un- 
founded belief  that  there  exists  an  impediment  to  the  free  use 
of  speech.  This  delusion  wreaks  havoc  with  the  different  in- 
nervations requisite  for  oral  speech.  Neither  the  expression 
'fear'  (Schranck)  nor  the  term  'doubt'  (Wyneken)  is  applicable 
to  this  delusion,  for  when  the  delusion  arises  there  is  not  doubt, 
but  subjective  certainty ;  and  this  certainty  is  not  always  ac- 
companied by  such  feeHngs  of  malaise  {Unlustgefuhle)  as 
would  justify  one  in  speaking  of  'lalophobia'  or  'speech-fear.' 
These  feelings  of  malaise  are  secondary,  being  induced  by  the 
delusion,  —  which  naturally  enough  gives  rise  to  painful  ex- 
periences. One  might  regard  stammering  as  one  of  the  mani- 
fold forms  of  hypochondria  if  the  symptoms  of  the  latter  affection 
were  delusions  concerning  bodily  disabilities,  rather  than  'fear 
and  anxiety  for  the  body  itself.'"  ^ 

The  chief  flaw  in  Denhardt's  theory  is  that  it  does 
not  account  for  the  inception  of  the  speech-disturb- 
ance. Denhardt  imagines  that  stammering  begins 
by  some  sort  of  accident — an  accidental  stumbKng 
in  speech  —  and  that  introspection  then  confirms  the 
defect.  (This  same  introspection  and  fear  is  made 
to  account  for  stammering  when  it  is  induced  by 
imitation  and  association.)  The  initial  trouble 
having  arisen,  the  development  of  the  malady 
is  easily  explained : 

^  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  181-182. 


FEAR  AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  301 

"  Should  the  revived  memory-picture  possess  sufficient  clear- 
ness and  intensity  to  awaken  feelings  of  anxiety  and  fear,  and 
should  its  fatal  influence  not  be  neutralized  by  reason  or  by  an 
unwavering  faith  in  one's  own  faculties,  then  there  steps  in  for 
a  second  time  bewilderment  and  delay  to  wreak  havoc  with 
the  movements  that  should  give  oral  expression  to  thought. 
The  incident  will  be  repeated,  and  with  every  repetition  the  dis- 
turbing influences  find  an  easier  victory.  The  anxiety  rising 
from  the  recollection  has  shown  itself  to  be  well  founded.  Any 
dubiety  as  to  its  foundation,  which  might  at  first  have  appeared, 
is  silenced  by  the  seemingly  incontrovertible  evidence  of  fact. 
Forthwith  there  disappears  anxiety  —  care  lest  there  should 
recur  those  unhappy  disturbances  with  which  the  malady  be- 
gan —  and  in  its  stead  there  prevails  the  subjective  certainty 
that  the  stammerer  no  longer  has  unimpeded  use  of  speech. 
Thus  there  is  established  the  delusional  belief  that  any  attempt 
to  speak  is  frustrated  by  an  actual  impediment;  though  this 
impediment  has  in  truth  no  existence  outside  the  imagination 
of  the  now  fully  developed  stammerer.  This  belief,  with  the 
concomitant  feelings  of  malaise  (at  times  weaker  and  at  times 
stronger)  is  thenceforth  the  invariable  cause  of  stammering."  ^ 

The  delusional  belief,  according  to  the  author, 
assumes  all  kinds  of  illogical  forms  : 

"For  instance,  some  believe  that  they  can  speak  better 
during  warm  than  during  cold  weather ;  while  others  hold  the 
opposite  view.  In  a  way,  both  are  right,  for  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  whenever  the  conviction  of  this  relation  has  become 
seated  in  the  mind  of  the  stammerer,  the  circumstances  will  to 
an  extent  accommodate  themselves  to  the  belief.  Whoever 
looks  for  the  mitigation  of  his  trouble  in  warmer  weather  will, 
with  the  advent  of  such  weather,  in  reality  feel  freer  and  more 

^  Loc.  cit.y  p.  147. 


302       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

resolute,  and  will  consequently  stammer  less.  This  result  is 
not  to  be  attributed  to  the  weather  as  such,  but  solely  to  the 
stammerer's  belief  that  the  weather  confers  upon  him  a  power 
that  he  did  not  formerly  possess."  ^ 

According  to  our  author,  a  superstition  prevails 
that  the  intensity  of  the  stammerer's  impediment  is 
in  some  way  correlated  with  the  different  phases  of 
the  moon.  The  waning  moon  is  supposed  to  mitigate 
the  impediment,  and  the  crescent  moon  to  aggravate 
it.     This  belief  influences  the  stammering: 

"He  that  firmly  believes  in  this  lunar  influence  will  find  his 
observations  to  some  extent  in  accord  with  his  theory ;  but  that 
the  moon  is  not  accountable  for  the  correlation  is  clearly  shown 
by  the  following  incident.  During  the  course  of  a  conversation 
a  stammerer  once  informed  me  of  this  relation  between  the 
severity  of  speech-disorders  and  the  phases  of  the  moon.  I  at 
once  insisted  that  there  must  be  some  mistake:  he  had  the 
relations  reversed.  And  in  truth  this  same  gentleman  aston- 
ished me  soon  after  with  the  information  that  I  was  right,  and 
that  the  waning  moon  was  accompanied  by  an  enhancement  of 
the  impediment.  The  belief  aroused  by  my  positive  assertion 
was  sufficiently  powerful  to  influence  the  mind  of  the  stammerer 
in  the  direction  suggested,  so  that  he  was  able  to  discover  vari- 
ations in  his  own  impediment  corresponding  to  the  changing 
phases  of  the  moon."  ^ 

Denhardt  expresses  a  cogent  truth  in  the  theory 
that  stammering  is  due  to  fear  and  auto-suggestion. 
The  theory,  however,  expresses  but  a  partial  truth, 
for  fear  and  auto-suggestion  merely  aggravate  the 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  86.  '  Loc.  cit.,  p.  87. 


FEAR   AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  303 

impediment — they  do  not  cause  it.  They  are  them- 
selves the  efects  of  the  disorder,  and  later  they  react 
upon  it  as  mediate  causes.  The  immediate  cause,  as 
we  have  seen,  is  usually  transient  auditory  amnesia. 
Denhardt  himself  regards  the  fear  as  an  indirect  rather 
than  a  direct  cause.  The  condition  directly  respon- 
sible for  the  stammering  he  considers  to  be  indecision, 
or  a  wavering  of  will,  this  being  caused  in  its  turn  by 
the  stammerer's  lack  of  confidence  in  his  own  ability 
to  control  the  speech-organs.  Denhardt  says  of  this 
vacillation  of  the  will : 

"An  examination  of  the  mental  processes  during  stammering 
shows  that  the  disturbance  takes  the  form  of  a  struggle  be- 
tween two  opposing  forces,  —  the  will,  which  endeavors  to 
translate  the  thought  into  spoken  words,  and  the  belief  in  one's 
inability  to  accomplish  what  is  intended.  The  former  impels 
forward,  and  the  latter  backward :  the  will  to  speak  initiates 
a  movement,  but  in  the  same  instant  fear  obstructs  it.  All 
the  characteristic  phenomena  of  stammering  emanate  from  this 
conflict  and  from  the  visible  efforts  of  the  stammerer  to  pro- 
cure the  victory  for  the  former  at  aU  costs.  In  the  end,  the  will 
to  speak  invariably  prevails,  and  compels  the  enunciation  of 
the  word  that  was  at  first  checked  or  impeded  by  the  stam- 
merer's fatal  belief  in  his  own  disability.  Often  this  conquest 
is  made  only  after  continued  struggle  and  bewildering  effort."  ^ 

This  indecision  and  constant  checking  of  the  fiat 
has  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter.  It  is 
an  immediate  cause  of  stammering,  but  it  is  itself  a 

^  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  176-177. 


304       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

secondary  manifestation.  There  would  be  no  waver- 
ing of  the  will  if  an  impediment  to  speech  did  not 
first  exist. 

One  of  the  chief  faults  in  Denhardt's  theory  is  that 
it  takes  no  account  of  the  origin  of  speech-disturbances. 
Denhardt  carefully  classifies  the  inducing  causes  of 
stammering,  giving  them  as  mechanical  causes  (a  fall 
or  a  blow,  for  instance),  mental  shock,  and  illness; 
but  he  does  not  show  how  these  causes  operate.  After 
the  cause  has  appeared,  the  patient  simply  stammers. 
However,  Denhardt  testifies  to  the  aphasic  nature  of 
stammering  in  the  following  paragraph  :^ 

"One  of  my  patients,  when  five  or  six  years  old,  experienced 
an  unlucky  fall  on  the  head,  which  was  accompanied  by  much 
loss  of  blood.  As  a  consequence  he  remained  speechless  for  a 
year.  After  this  interval  the  speech  returned,  but  it  was  dis- 
torted by  severe  stammering,  which  had  not  left  the  patient 
in  his  thirty-first  year." 

By  the  recital  of  such  incidents  and  by  his  classifi- 
cation of  the  inducing  causes  of  stammering,  Den- 
hardt may  fairly  be  said  to  compass  the  refutation  of 
his  own  theory. 

As  already  stated,  the  theory  supposes  that  the 
impediment  develops  accidentally,  and  that  it  is  con- 
firmed by  the  subject's  fear  of  its  recurrence  and  by 
his  morbid  introspection.  The  most  cogent  argument 
against  this  developmental  theory  is  that  87  per  cent 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  104. 


FEAR  AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  305 

of  stammerers  are,  as  children,  already  subject  to 
the  impediment  before  they  enter  school.  This 
means  that  the  impediment  develops  before  the  age 
of  five  or  six.  At  this  age  the  child  is  not  addicted  to 
reflective  self-analysis.  He  is  not  an  introspectionist ; 
he  is  an  animal  leading  a  sensory-motor  Hfe.  The 
child  does  not  reflect  upon  his  own  idiosyncrasies  ; 
and  at  an  early  age  his  peculiarities  of  speech  pass 
unnoticed.  Certainly  the  child  is  not  capable  of 
morbid  self-analysis  such  as  induces  phobia.  The 
child  stammers  because  of  auditory  amnesia.  The 
morbid  fear  develops  later  in  hfe. 

Denhardt  endeavors  to  anticipate  these  objections. 
He  asserts  that  the  child's  reflections  are  all  the  more 
deleterious  because  they  are  unreasoning,  and  because 
the  fear  is  based  upon  ignorance.  His  chief  difiiculty, 
though,  is  to  show  that  the  fear  exists.  In  endeavor- 
ing to  establish  the  latter  fact  he  unfortunately  argues 
by  analogy. 

*'One  gives  a  little  child  a  sour  apple  [he  says].  After  the 
child  has  bitten  it  and  experienced  the  unpleasant  taste,  he 
lets  the  apple  fall  or  throws  it  away.  Let  one  repeat  the  ex- 
periment after  some  time,  and  he  will  see  how  the  child  turns 
away  with  evident  aversion  and  rejects  the  apple  that  is  offered 
him."  1 

Manifestly  there  is  no  parallel  between  these  two 
cases ;  and  any  conclusion  that  may  be  derived  from 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  153. 


3o6      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

the  one  has  no  application  whatever  to  the  other.  In 
the  case  of  the  apple  we  are  dealing  with  a  simple 
association  between  a  visual  and  a  gustatory  impres- 
sion. In  the  case  of  stammering  we  are  deaHngwith 
an  association  between  speech-hesitancy  and  an 
emotion  that  has  not  yet  been  shown  to  exist.  The 
argument  presupposes  the  existence  in  order  to  ar- 
rive at  the  association.  But  even  if  the  naive  child 
were  to  experience  emotion  and  chagrin  when 
stammering,  he  would  not  be  likely  to  develop  lalo- 
phobia  through  a  process  of  morbid  introspection. 
Denhardt  attributes  undue  precocity  to  the  child. 
If  the  child  could  develop  stammering  through  morbid 
anxiety  after  some  accidental  hesitancy  in  speech, 
then  there  would  exist  a  far  greater  number  of  stam- 
merers; for  every  child  falters  at  an  early  age  when 
acquiring  command  of  language,  and  every  child  is 
therefore  a  potential  stammerer. 

It  is  evident  that  Denhardt's  theory  fails  conspicu- 
ously in  two  respects  :  it  does  not  account  for  the  origin 
of  the  stammering  that  is  supposed  to  give  rise  to  the 
psychosis  or  phobia,  and  it  does  not  account  for  the 
fact  that  stammering  develops  in  the  entirely  naive 
period  of  life.  The  fear  and  auto-suggestion  develop 
at  a  later  period,  and  they  exist  thereafter  as  mediate 
causes.  But  the  potency  of  these  causes  cannot  be 
easily  overestimated.  Denhardt  has  not  emphasized 
these  secondary  causes  unduly.     He  is  in  error  merely 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  307 

in  supposing  them  to  be  the  sole  causes  that  exist. 
His  book  shows  an  excellent  attempt  to  throw  aside 
the  futile  theories  of  the  elocutionists.  It  can  safely 
be  said  that  the  reader  would  be  well  repaid  for  a 
perusal  of  this  interesting  work. 

A  great  many  writers  hold  to  the  theory  expressed 
by  Denhardt,  and  several  of  them  expressed  the 
theory  before  him.  Wyneken  states  his  opinion  as 
follows :  ^ 

"Were  I  to  attempt  an  explanation  of  the  case,  I  should  say 
that  the  will  is  more  or  less  restrained  —  so  far  as  its  control 
over  the  speech-muscles  is  concerned  —  and  that  this  occurs 
through  fear.  The  stammerer  is  a  speech-doubter.  When 
he  attempts  a  difficult  word,  his  will  is  partially  lamed  by  doubt, 
—  which  one  can  in  a  way  regard  as  an  independent  will  in- 
imical to  the  true  will.  The  muscles  controlling  respiration, 
phonation,  and  articulation  do  not  know  —  if  I  may  so  express 
myself  —  which  master  to  obey ;  therefore  they  do  not  properly 
perform  their  functions,  and  stammering  naturally  ensues. 
It  is  just  as  though  one  were  to  attempt  a  leap,  and  find  himself 
seized  with  doubt  at  the  very  moment  that  he  springs.  He  is 
too  late  to  prevent  the  leap,  but  does  not  jump  with  confidence, 
and  hence  does  not  accomphsh  what  he  intended." 

Werner  says  of  fear :  ^ 

"Why  is  it  that  the  stutterer,  when  alone,  has  no  trouble, 
but  the  very  moment  some  one  enters  his  presence  he  becomes 
helpless  ?  The  answer  comes  with  irresistible  force,  —  be- 
cause of  fear," 

^"Ueber  das  Stottem  und  dessen  Heilung,"  pp.  20-21. 
2  Werner's  Voice  Magazine,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  86-87. 


3o8      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

According  to  Frank  :^ 

"Stammering  is  a  fear-neurosis,  which  is  caused  in  neurotic 
children  by  fright  during  the  earliest  years  of  life." 

Stekel  says :  ^ 

"One  of  the  severest  forms  of  pathological  fear  is  found  in 
stammering,  —  the  fear  of  speech.  Originally  it  is  the  fear  of 
betraying  some  secret  during  speech.  Later  the  fear  becomes 
transferred  to  the  act  of  speaking  itself." 

Stekel  introduces  the  inevitable  "sexuelle  Aetio- 
logie"  of  the  Freud  school.  At  present  his  theories 
of  causality  need  scarcely  be  discussed.^  So  far  as 
they  relate  to  stammering  they  are  sufficiently  ridic- 
ulous to  carry  their  own  refutation. 

We  shall  now  consider  how  these  secondary  causes, 
fear  and  auto-suggestion,  come  to  effect  disturbances 
in  speech.  We  shall  consider  first  the  influence  of 
fear  unattended  by  auto-suggestion,  or  belief  in  one's 
own  disabilities ;  and  then  the  effect  of  auto-suggestion 
itself  so  far  as  it  can  be  studied  as  an  isolated  factor. 
Auto-suggestion,  however,  when  it  is  a  suggestion  of 
failure,  is  rarely  unaccompanied  by  fear. 

i"Die  Psychanalyse,"  p.  15. 

2  "Nervose  Angstzustande  und  ihre  Behandlung,"  p.  231. 

3  The  theories  of  the  psychoanalytic  school  are  discussed  at  some 
length  in  Vol.  II,  Chap.  VIL 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  309 

The  Direct  Effects  of  Fear 

Fear  operates  by  paralyzing  the  musculature.  It 
inhibits  even  the  grosser  muscular  movements.  Many 
persons  cannot  walk  naturally  upon  a  platform  when 
they  know  themselves  to  be  the  target  for  a  battery 
of  eyes.  Self-consciousness  and  fear  deprive  them 
of  muscular  control,  and  there  exists  a  condition 
similar  to  agoraphobia.  Westphal's  description  of 
the  patient  suffering  from  agoraphobia  (p.  298)  is 
merely  the  description  of  a  person  seized  with  extreme 
fear.  The  person's  helplessness  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  he  is  mentally  transfixed. 

"People  are  frequently  run  over  by  carriages,  cars,  or  trains 
on  account  of  the  sudden  great  fright  caused.  The  one  idea 
of  danger  reverberates  in  the  mind  like  a  sudden  powerful  clap 
of  thunder,  confusing  and  stunning  all  other  ideas ;  the  mind  is 
brought  into  a  contracted  cataleptic  condition,  and  the  field  of 
consciousness  is  narrowed  down  to  that  one  idea,  to  a  single 
point."  1 

Animals  are  often  thrown  by  fright  into  a  cataleptic 
condition.  This  may  occur  also  with  human  beings. 
The  cataleptic  condition  is  physical,  but  it  is  accom- 
panied by  a  condition  of  "mental  catalepsy,"  as  Sidis 
figuratively  expresses  it.  Denhardt  records  the  case 
of  a  boy  that  would  frequently  faint  when  his  stam- 
mering became  severe.     The  fainting  may  not  have 

^  Sidis,  "The  Psychology  of  Suggestion,"  p.  60. 


3IO      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

been  wholly  due  to  fear,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 

that  it  was  due  in  large  part  to  this  cause. 

Fear  exerts  its  greatest  influence  upon  the  accessory 
muscles.  The  articulative  organs  or  fingers  may  be 
rendered  powerless  when  the  larger  muscles  of  the 
body  are  practically  unaffected.  Fear  causes  one  to 
falter  while  playing  the  piano,  and  it  interferes  with 
articulation  in  speech.  The  most  fluent  speakers 
may  be  rendered  impotent  by  stage-fright. 

Fear  induces  cerebral  congestion,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably this  condition  that  inhibits  muscular  control. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  Mosso's  experiments 
showed  that  there  was  a  far  greater  flow  of  blood  to 
the  brain  during  fear  than  during  ordinary  mental 
activity : 

"The  brain-pulse  became  six  or  seven  times  greater  than 
before;  the  blood-vessels  expanded,  and  the  brain  swelled 
and  beat  with  such  vigor  that  my  colleagues  stared  with  aston- 
ishment at  the  photogram  of  the  tracings."  ^ 

Mosso  relates  an  interesting  incident  apropos  of 
the  afflux  of  blood  to  the  brain,  and  the  conse- 
quent shrinkage  of  the  body,  during  fear.  A  friend 
informed  him  that  upon  the  occasion  of  a  sudden 
fright  a  ring  once  dropped  from  his  finger,  —  though 
this  ring  ordinarily  fitted  so  closely  that  considerable 
effort  was  required  to  remove  it.  The  incident  shows 
that  fear  must  be  accompanied  by  a  prodigious  flow 
i"DieFurcht,"p.  73. 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  311 

of  blood  to  the  brain.  During  fright  this  afflux  of 
blood  to  the  brain  is  often  so  great  that  it  causes 
death  through  rupture  of  the  cerebral  vessels. 

Cerebral  hyperaemia  probably  effects  an  obfuscation 
of  the  mental  imagery.  This  subjective  condition 
would  account  for  the  exacerbration  of  stammer- 
ing during  fear,  and  for  speechlessness  during  stage- 
fright.  The  direct  cause  is  amnesia;  the  inducing 
cause  is  fear.  It  is  not  surprising  that  fear  should 
induce  transitory  disabiHties  in  speech,  for  fear  is 
one  of  the  most  proHfic  causes  of  permanent  stam- 
mering and  is  one  of  the  causes  of  aphasia.  The 
more  intense  emotion  induces  permanent  stammer- 
ing or  aphasia  probably  through  rupture  or  exces- 
sive distension  of  the  finer  cortical  vessels.  The 
weaker  emotion  may  induce  temporary  stammering 
through  cerebral  hyperaemia  that  leaves  no  injury  to 
the  brain. 

Fear  seems  to  be  particularly  inimical  to  the  audi- 
tory imagery,  —  or  perhaps  it  is  that  the  obscuration 
of  the  auditory  imagery  manifests  itself  in  more 
direct  form.  Persons  affile  ted  with  stage-fright  often 
stutter  and  articulate  without  producing  a  word.  It 
seems  as  though  they  are  able  to  recall  the  grosser 
articulative  movements  requisite  for  the  enunciation 
of  the  words,  but  unable  to  recaU  the  auditory  images 
necessary  for  their  completion.  In  the  stammerer, 
the  auditory  imagery  is  more  readily  affected  than 


312       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

imagery  of  other  forms.  The  auditory  images  are, 
as  it  were,  more  readily  extinguishable.  It  is,  of 
course,  this  vuhierability  of  the  acoustic  imagery  that 
makes  the  person  a  stammerer. 

Pure  fear  —  even  when  it  is  not  speech-fear  —  is 
likely  to  produce  mental  chaos  or  bewilderment,  and 
thus  to  interfere  with  the  execution  of  speech. 
^'Presence  of  mind"  under  conditions  of  emotional 


Fio.  7.  —  "  Ordinary,  quiet  breathing ;   i,  inspiration ;  e,  expiration  " 
(after  David  Greene). 

excitement  is  a  rather  rare  attribute.  "Absence  of 
mind,"  or  chaos  of  mind,  is  the  more  common  con- 
dition. 

Fear  may  aggravate  physical  stammering  by  in- 
ducing respiratory  disturbances.  The  disturbances 
usually  take  the  form  of  a  ''fluttering"  of  the  dia- 
phragm. That  the  irregular  action  of  the  diaphragm 
is  due  to  emotion  rather  than  to  voluntary  physical 
stammering  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  is  present 
before  the  stammerer  begins  to  speak.  Often  it  com- 
mences as  soon  as  the  stammerer  is  addressed.  In- 
trospection Hkewise  discloses  the  fact  that  the  abnor- 
mal respiration  is  due  to  fear  or  excitement.     The 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  313 

condition  is  often  induced  by  the  mere  thought  of 
speaking,  when  no  occasion  for  speech  actually  exists. 
Many  writers  have  investigated  these  respiratory 
disturbances  with  the  pneumograph.  Liebmann  says 
on  the  matter  :  ^ 


Fig.  8.  — "Irregular  breathing  caused  by  mental  agitation  while    being 
asked  a  question"  (after  David  Greene). 

"Gutzmann  and  I  have  studied  the  stammerer's  abnormal 
respiration  by  means  of  Marey's  pneumograph.  We  ascertained 
that  the  respiration  of  most  patients  becomes  irregular  just 
before  speech  begins,  and  that  all  kinds  of  abnormal  inspiratory 
and  expiratory  movements  occur  during  speech  itself.  During 
normal  speech  there  occurs  a  short,  deep  inspiration,  followed 
by  a  long  and  gradual  expiration."  ^ 

Figures  7  and  8  show  the  respiratory  curves  obtained 
by  another  investigator.^  The  irregularities  in  the 
second  curve  are  caused  by  emotion.     It  is  evident 

^  "Vorlesungen  iiber  Sprachstorungen,"  i.  Heft,  p.  7. 

2  See  also  Gutzmann  und  Liebmann,  "Pneumographische  Unter- 
suchungen  iiber  die  Atmung  derStotternden."   (Wien.  Med.  BL,  1895.) 

^  David  Greene,  "The  Preponderance  of  Male  Stammerers  over 
Females."     (New  York  Medical  Journal,  April  13,  1901.) 


314       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

that  such  abnormahties  of  respiration  as  those  recorded 
must  inevitably  reveal  themselves  in  speech. 

AUTO-SUGGESTION 

We  shall  now  study  the  direct  effects  of  suggestion, 
bearing  in  mind  the  fact  that  fear  is  usually  present 
as  a  compHcating  factor,  and  that  pure  auto-sugges- 
tion rarely  acts  alone. 

Stammering  is  sometimes  induced  by  external 
suggestion.  It  seems  probable  that  fear  is  absent  in 
such  cases.  In  the  following  words  Sidis  describes 
the  manner  in  which  he  induced  stammering  and 
partial  agraphia  in  one  of  his  subjects :  ^ 

"I  then  tried  on  Mr.  W.  another  experiment.  'Pronounce 
"Boston."'  —  'Boston,'  and  he  said  it  easily  enough.  'And 
now  again.'  I  stretched  out  my  hand  and  made  it  perfectly 
rigid.  '  P-p-p-p-oston ! '  he  ejaculated  with  great  difficulty. 
'Again.'  I  made  my  hand  stiff er,  and  pointed  it  almost  directly 
in  his  face.  No  sound.  'Don't  look  at  me,'  he  said  at  last, 
'and  I  shall  be  able  to  say  it.' 

"'Well,  then,'  I  said,  'try  the  following  sentence:  "Peter 
Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers." '  He  began  to  say 
it,  but  when  he  came  to  '  peck  of '  I  raised  my  hand  and  stiffened 
it.  '  P-p-pe-ec-k '  came  from  his  lips ;  he  began  to  stammer  and 
could  not  continue. 

"'Well,  then,'  I  said,  'let  me  see  if  you  are  able  to  pro- 
nounce your  own  name.'  He  pronounced  it.  'Try  again.' 
I  stiffened  my  hand  and  again  the  same  result  —  he  was  unable 
to  pronoimce  his  own  name.  .  .  . 

*"The  Psychology  of  Suggestion,"  pp.  i8i  ff. 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  315 

"'Just  try  to  write  your  name,'  I  said.  He  wrote  it. 
'Again.'  He  wrote  it  once  more.  I  asked  him  to  write  slowly ; 
meanwhile  I  raised  my  hand,  stiffened  it,  kept  it  before  his 
very  eyes.  The  results  were  now  extremely  interesting.  His 
hand  became  cataleptic ;  he  could  not  manage  it.  In  a  loud 
voice  he  began  to  give  suggestions  to  himself.  '7  am  able  to 
write  my  name ;  I  can  write  my  name ;  I  will  and  shall  write 
it ;  yes,  I  can ;  I  can  write  my  name ; '  etc.  Each  time  as  he 
caught  sight  of  my  raised  hand  and  listened  to  the  torrent  of 
suggestions  I  poured  forth  his  hand  became  slightly  cataleptic 
and  the  letters  became  broken,  but  each  time  he  repeated  his 
suggestions  the  hand  went  on  writing.  .  .  .  [Finally]  my  sug- 
gestions were  completely  disregarded." 

Stammering  and  agraphia  were  produced  in  this  case 
by  the  inhibition  of  muscular  control.  The  sight  of  the 
stiffened  hand  aroused  in  the  subject  mental  feehngs  of 
stiffness  in  his  own  muscles,  and  these  kinaesthetic  im- 
ages were  expressed  in  muscular  contraction.  There 
probably  resulted  also  an  inhibition  of  the  fiat,  due  to 
the  subject's  behef  in  his  inabihty  to  speak  or  write. 

^w/o-suggestion  is  undoubtedly  the  direct  cause  of 
stammering  m  some  cases. ^  It  is  the  cause  of  stam- 
mering when  the  subject  has  difficulty  with  only 
one  particular  word  but  never  with  its  homonyms  or 
derivatives.  Thus  the  subject  may  stammer  on 
petroleum  but  not  on  petroleuse,'^  on  two,  but  not  on 

1  A  number  of  writers  have  attributed  stammering  to  auto-sug- 
gestion. See  Moll,  "Hypnotism";  Quackenbos,  "Hypnotism  in 
Mental  and  Moral  Culture,"  etc. 

2  See  Denhardt,  "Das  Stottern  eine  Psychose,"  p.  147. 


3i6      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

too  or  to.  In  such  cases,  stammering  is  directly  in- 
duced by  auto-suggestion ;  but  in  the  ordinary  case  of 
stammering  —  i.e.  in  amnesic  stammering  —  auto- 
suggestion is  operative  only  as  a  contributory  or 
secondary  cause. 

Auto-suggestion  acts  ordinarily  by  inhibiting  voli- 
tion. The  subject  firmly  beHeves  in  his  inabiHty  to  per- 
form a  certain  act,  and  therefore  hesitates  to  attempt  it. 
Even  after  beginning,  he  is  repeatedly  deterred  by 
the  conviction  of  his  own  impotence.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  Denhardt  and  Wyneken  regard  this 
wavering  of  the  will  as  the  direct  cause  of  stammering. 
It  is  one  of  the  principal  causes.  It  renders  the 
stammerer  constantly  irresolute,  and  frequently  pre- 
vents him  from  observing  a  direct  and  progressive 
procedure  in  the  expression  of  even  the  simplest 
thought.  This  fact  is  fittingly  illustrated  by  a  couple 
of  incidents  that  Denhardt  records : 

A  young  man  wished  to  purchase  a  theatre-ticket 
for  the  parquet,  but  fearing  that  he  might  stammer, 
he  began  by  asking  for  ''ein  Billet  zum  ersten  Rang." 
Then  a  moment  later  he  feigned  a  change  of  mind, 
and  asked  in  the  most  casual  manner  for  ''ein  Parkett- 
biUet."! 

Denhardt  then  relates  an  incident  in  his  own 
experience :  ^ 

1  "Das  Stottern  eine  Psychose,"  p.  46. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  46-47. 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  317 

"This  reminds  me  of  a  strategem  that  often  rendered  me 
good  service,  when,  as  a  boy,  I  had  to  purchase  cigars  for  my 
father.  Upon  entering  the  shop  I  walked  to  the  open  case, 
which  contained  an  assortment  of  cigars  of  which  I  knew  the 
prices  perfectly  weU.  In  affected  ignorance  I  pointed  to  and 
inquired  about  a  particular  cigar  that  I  had  no  intention  of 
buying.  I  repeated  these  tactics  with  one  or  two  others  till 
I  thought  the  propitious  moment  had  arrived ;  then  I  requested 
the  shop-girl  to  give  me  the  particular  brand  of  cigars  that  I 
had  been  commissioned  to  buy." 

Most  stammerers  could  cite  incidents  of  a  like 
nature  in  their  own  experience.  These  facts  illus- 
trate the  point  already  made,  —  that  the  stammerer 
often  fails  to  observe  a  direct  and  progressive  manner 
of  thought.  There  is  endless  vacillation  of  the  will, 
and  the  verbal  image  that  should  instigate  oral 
speech  is  constantly  inhibited.  The  inhibition  occurs, 
too,  after  the  stammerer  has  begun  to  speak,  and  in 
this  case  it  is  directly  responsible  for  the  stammering. 

Auto-suggestion  can  operate  in  another  way. 
When  the  stammerer  expects  to  encounter  difficulty 
with  a  particular  word,  he  attends  to  his  stammering 
rather  than  to  his  speech.  Mental  images  of  the  ex- 
pected stammering  —  labial  effort,  contraction  of  the 
lingual  muscles,  etc.  —  then  get  to  the  focus  of  atten- 
tion, and  displace  the  normal  verbal  images.  These 
imnatural  mental  images,  of  course,  express  them- 
selves in  muscular  movements,  and  stammering  ensues. 

Auto-suggestion  thus  induces  stammering  through 


3i8      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

the  inhibition  or  the  displacement  of  the  normal 
verbal  image.  It  is  probable  that  inhibition  is  itself 
brought  about  only  by  the  diversion  of  attention  to 
an  obsessing  image.  The  subject  offers  a  rich  field 
for  investigation. 

Some  stammerers  find  that  they  are  able  to  speak 
when  they  feel  ''compelled"  to  do  so  by  the  very 
urgency  of  a  situation.  There  are  stammerers,  for 
instance,  that  speak  well  in  public.  Martin  Tupper 
never  stammered  when  reading  or  reciting.  Charles 
Kingsley  spoke  well  from  the  pulpit,  but  stammered 
badly  in  conversation.  The  writer  knows  several 
ministers  that  have  this  experience.  One  stammerer 
of  the  writer's  acquaintance  is  a  successful  amateur 
actor;  another  is  a  talented  orator  and  debater.  A 
probable  reason  for  the  stammerer's  fluency  imder 
coercive  conditions  is  that  he  is  seized  with  a  deter- 
mination to  give  unimpeded  expression  to  thought, 
and  that  he  therefore  ceases  to  vacillate,  and  redinte- 
grates the  verbal  images  in  a  consecutive  and  orderly 
manner.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  the  sole 
reason  for  the  stammerer's  fluency.  It  is  probable 
that  the  very  urgency  of  the  situation  really  assists 
the  stammerer  in  overcoming  his  amnesia.  This 
phenomenon  would  not  be  surprising,  for  we  find 
that  aphasic  patients  often  break  the  bonds  of  silence 
under   the   pressure   of   intense   emotion.     Unfortu- 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  319 

nately,  the  stammerer's  speech  often  suffers  in  the 
reaction,  and  a  complete  collapse  follows  the  brief 
subjugation  of  the  impediment. 

Stammerers  that  are  able  to  suppress  the  impedi- 
ment by  sheer  force  of  will  are  certainly  in  the  minority. 
The  majority  of  stammerers  experience  fear  that  is 
proportionate  to  the  exigency  of  the  circumstances, 
and  stammering  is  proportionate  to  tne  fear.  This 
is  a  somewhat  perverse  condition  of  affairs,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  the  condition  that  usually  prevails. 

Denhardt  believes  that  the  stammerer's  fluency 
or  difficulty  in  speech  under  particular  circumstances 
is  due  entirely  to  the  memory  of  the  initial  success 
or  failure.  If  the  stammerer  succeeds  the  first  time 
he  talks  from  a  platform,  he  is  confident  thereafter, 
and  consequently  speaks  with  fluency.  If  he  stam- 
mers the  first  time,  he  fears  further  attempt ;  hence 
stammers  on  future  occasions: 

"The  memory  of  success  or  failure  has  the  greatest  sig- 
nificance in  the  life  of  the  stammerer.  Should  he  by  chance 
speak  well  at  the  beginning  of  the  day,  then  the  outlook  for 
the  rest  of  the  day  is  more  favorable :  the  converse  also  is 
true.  If  he  stammers  first  on  a  p,  he  acquires  a  special  fear 
of  this  letter,  and  consequently  has  trouble  with  words  that 
begin  with  it.  The  effect  of  memory  varies  with  the  circum- 
stances, and  it  is  extraordinarily  diverse  in  duration.  The 
effect  may  endure  for  hours,  weeks,  or  months."  ^ 

1  Denhardt,  "Das  Stottern  eine  Psychose,"  p.  84. 


320      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Emotional  Association 

The  effect  of  the  initial  success  or  failure  is 
explained  by  emotional  association.  The  fear  or 
assurance  that  originally  accompanied  a  particular 
circumstance  is  recalled  by  the  recurrence  of  the 
circumstance  itself.  The  emotion  then  impedes  or 
faciHtates  speech.  This  emotional  association  ex- 
plains the  idiosyncratic  differences  among  stam- 
merers themselves. 

Particular  words,  as  well  as  particular  circum- 
stances, acquire  associations  that  render  them  effective 
mischief-makers.  The  word  seems  to  acquire  the 
emotion  of  fear  as  one  of  the  elements  of  the  con- 
cept. As  soon  as  the  word  appears  on  the  horizon 
of  consciousness,  there  occurs  a  deluge  of  emotion 
that  buries  all  verbal  imagery  by  its  very  intensity. 
Mental  chaos  and  loss  of  muscular  control  then 
render  the  stammerer  impotent. 

The  fear  of  these  particular  words  often  takes  the 
form  of  a  veritable  phobia.  The  stammerer  picks 
out  difficult  words  more  or  less  consciously  in  silent 
thought,  and  even  frames  his  own  verbal  thoughts 
to  avoid  them.  He  selects  difficult  words  as  he 
listens  to  the  conversation  of  another  person,  and 
looks  for  his  enemies  while  reading.  This  is  lalo- 
phobia  in  an  unmitigated  form. 

Emotional  association  is  one  of  the  most  potent 


FEAR  AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  321 

influences  in  human  life.  An  emotion  that  has  ac- 
companied a  particular  circumstance  tends  in  a 
remarkable  way  to  be  aroused  by  the  recurrence  of 
the  circumstance  itself.^  The  emotion  seems  to  be 
not  merely  aroused  by  the  mental  image  or  impres- 
sion, but  seems  rather  to  become  an  integral  part 
of  the  concept.^  One  surveys  the  scene  of  a  former 
accident  with  horror.  One  regards  some  detestable 
creature  with  loathing,  hatred,  or  fear.  One  regards 
a  friend  with  affection  or  esteem.  The  particular 
circumstances  that  engendered  these  feehngs  may  be 
entirely  forgotten.  The  emotion  simply  attaches 
itself  to  the  object  and  cHngs  to  it  thereafter  irrespec- 
tive of  the  presence  or  absence  of  intelHgent  cognitive 
memory. 

Of  all  emotions,  fear  forms  the  most  powerful  asso- 
ciations. The  reason  for  this  is  evident.  During 
the  early  history  of  the  race,  a  strong  emotional  as- 
sociation of  this  nature  would  be  a  biological  neces- 
sity. The  individual  possessed  of  strong  associa- 
tions of  fear  would  be  Hkely  to  survive.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  individual  that  was  devoid  of  this 

^  The  converse  of  this  principle  is  expressed  in  the  proposition 
that  our  thoughts  are  consistent  with  our  moods. 

2  Many  authorities  hold  that  there  is  no  "affective  memory"; 
i.e.  that  there  are  no  mental  images  of  emotional  experiences.  They 
believe  that  the  emotions  are  revived  in  actuality  and  not  in  memory. 
But  even  under  these  cirsumstances  one  could  regard  the  awakened 
emotion  as  one  of  the  elements  of  the  concept. 


322      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

emotional  association  would  soon  be  eliminated. 
Fear  has  thus  been  self -perpetuating ;  and  strong 
fear-associations  have  come  to  be  a  racial  heritage. 
Many  of  these  associations  are  ready-made :  the  fear 
is  instinctive,  and  occurs  anterior  to  all  experience. 
''Secondary,"  or  acquired,  fears  are  estabhshed  by 
the  experience  of  the  individual;  but  they  may 
remain  as  quasi-instinctive  fears  after  the  incidents 
that  occasioned  them  are  forgotten. 

"Cases  of  strange  and  insunnountable  fear  or  antipathy 
have  been  noticed  in  some  celebrated  men:  Scaliger  was 
seized  with  nervous  trembling  at  the  sight  of  the  water-cress, 
Bacon  fainted  during  eclipses,  Bayle  at  the  sound  of  running 
water,  James  I  at  the  sight  of  a  naked  sword."  ^ 

Ribot  supposes  these  fears  to  be  due  to  the  for- 
gotten experiences  of  early  childhood.  Such  instances 
demonstrate  the  persistence  of  fear-associations. 
Many  of  the  phobias  cited  in  the  earher  part  of  the 
chapter  are  manifestly  due  to  individual  experience, 
and  often  to  experiences  that  have  been  totally 
forgotten. 

Instinctive  emotions,  due  to  racial  experience,  are 
common  in  both  human  beings  and  the  lower  animals. 
The  chick  fears  the  hawk,  though  it  has  had  no 
encounter  with  the  depredator.  Most  animals  show 
instinctive  fear  of  their  natural  enemies.  Gratilot 
gave  a  very  young  puppy  a  fragment  of  wolf's  skin 

^  Ribot,  "The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,"  p.  216. 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  323 

so  worn  that  it  resembled  parchment.  When  the 
animal  smelled  it,  he  was  seized  with  intense  fear.^ 
In  this  case  fear  was  aroused  by  a  simple  olfactory 
stimulus.  Instinctive  fears  are  forever  outcropping 
in  the  human  being.  We  see  racial  reverberations 
in  the  fear  of  the  dark  and  of  water,  in  tHe  dread  of 
high  places  and  of  solitude,  in  the  fear  of  reptiles, 
insects,  fur,  etc. 

"Children  who  have  been  carefully  guarded  from  all  ghost- 
stories  are  nevertheless  terrified  and  cry  if  led  into  a  dark  place, 
especially  if  sounds  are  made  there.  Even  an  adult  can  easily 
observe  that  an  uncomfortable  timidity  steals  over  him  in  a 
lonely  wood  at  night,  although  he  may  have  the  fixed  con- 
viction that  not  the  slightest  danger  is  near."  ^ 

These  instinctive  fears,  of  course,  vary  greatly  in 
different  persons.  In  a  few  persons,  most  of  the 
instinctive  fears  are  present.  In  others,  only  the 
more  common  and  '^ natural"  fears  are  in  evidence. 
All  degrees  of  variation  are  found  between  the  two 
extremes. 

Fear  as  an  emotion  and  an  instinct  has  practically 
outhved  its  usefulness.  (This  is  true,  at  least,  of  the 
emotion  in  its  intenser  forms.)  Fear  has  been  an 
important  factor  in  the  evolution  of  the  race,  but 
civiUzed  races  have  now  reached  a  point  of  develop- 

^  Ribot,  "The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,"  p.  7. 
2  Schneider,  "Der  Menschliche  Wille,"  p.  224;   quoted  by  James, 
"Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  418. 


324       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

ment  where  instinctive  fears  and  fear-associations 
have  Uttle  function  to  perform.  Fear  has  become 
an  execrable  heritage,  for  in  most  cases  its  function 
is  perverted,  and  the  emotion  is  aroused  by  an  entirely 
inappropriate  stimulus.  As  an  instinct,  fear  is  almost 
an  atavism;  as  an  emotion  aroused  by  associational 
bonds,  it  it  usually  a  curse.  Fear  makes  it  impos- 
sible for  one  to  accomplish  the  very  thing  in  which 
he  dreads  to  fail. 

Ribot  holds  that  any  fear  is  pathological  when  it 
becomes  hurtful  rather  than  useful.  Fere's  criterion 
of  the  morbid  is  the  undue  intensity  of  the  emotion, 
its  unreasonable  prolongation,  and  insufhciency  of 
the  cause.  According  to  these  tests,  most  instinc- 
tive and  acquired  fears  are  pathological  when  the 
emotion  reaches  any  considerable  degree.  The  stam- 
merer's fear  is  imquestionably  pathological.  In  this 
case  all  criteria  are  superfluous. 

So  much  for  instinctive  fears  and  fear- associations. 

The  Nature  of  Fear 

We  shall  consider  now  the  intrinsic  nature  of  fear  and 
of  emotion  in  general.  Emotion  is  usually  regarded 
as  a  purely  mental  phenomenon  —  as  something  that 
one  feels  actually  within  the  mind.  The  emotion 
is  thought  to  be  aroused  by  its  appropriate  ob- 
ject, and  the  physical  disturbances  to  be  aroused 
in   their   turn   by   the   emotion.     The  James-Lange 


FEAR  AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  325 

theory/  a  theory  that  is  now  widely  accepted  by 
psychologists,  exactly  reverses  this  sequence.  It  sup- 
poses that  the  physical  disturbances  occur  reflexly  when 
the  stimulus  appears,  and  that  the  emotion  is  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  the  feehng  of  these  phy^cal  distur- 
bances. That  this  is  the  more  logical  order  of  the 
events  should  be  evident  from  our  previous  discussion 
of  inherited  instincts.  An  organism  cannot  inherit 
knowledge :  it  is  not  aware,  during  its  first  experi- 
ence, of  the  nature  of  the  impending  danger  from 
which  it  flees.  When  it  flees,  it  mxcrely  reacts  to  an 
emotional  stimulus.  The  presence  of  the  emotion  can 
be  explained  only  on  the  ground  that  it  consists  in 
the  feehng  of  reflex  physical  disturbances.  James 
explains  his  theory  concerning  the  sensory  nature  of 
emotion  as  follows :  ^ 

"Our  natural  way  of  thinking  about  these  coarser  emotions 
is  that  the  mental  perception  of  some  fact  excites  the  mental 
affection  called  the  emotion,  and  that  this  latter  state  of  mind 
gives  rise  to  the  bodily  expression.  My  theory,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  that  the  bodily  changes  follow  directly  the  perception  of 
the  exciting  fact,  and  that  our  feeling  of  the  same  changes  as  they 
occur,  IS  the  emotion.  Common-sense  says,  we  lose  our  fortune, 
are  sorry  and  weep ;  we  meet  a  bear,  are  frightened  and  run ; 
we  are  insulted  by  a  rival,  are  angry  and  strike.     The  hypotb- 

^  For  a  complete  discussion  of  this  theory  see  C.  Lange,  "Ueber 
Gemiithsbewegungen,"  Leipzig,  1887;  and  James,  "Principles  of 
Psychology,"  Chap.  XXV. 

2  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  449-450. 


326      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

esis  here  to  be  defended  says  that  this  order  of  sequence  is 
incorrect,  that  the  one  mental  state  is  not  immediately  induced 
by  the  other,  that  the  bodily  manifestation  must  first  be  inter- 
posed between,  and  that  the  more  rational  statement  is  that 
we  feel  sorry  because  we  cry,  angry  because  we  strike,  afraid 
because  we  tremble,  and  not  that  we  cry,  strike,  or  tremble, 
because  we  are  sorry,  angry,  or  fearful,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Without  the  bodily  states  following  on  the  perception,  the  latter 
would  be  purely  cognitive  in  form,  pale,  colorless,  destitute  of 
emotional  warmth.  We  might  then  see  the  bear,  and  judge 
it  best  to  run,  receive  the  insult  and  deem  it  right  to  strike, 
but  we  should  not  actually /^e/  afraid  or  angry." 

That  emotion  is  not  a  purely  mental  phenomenon 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  it  is  entirely  independent 
of  cognition.  Fear  persists  in  spite  of  one's  positive 
belief  in  the  non-existence  of  danger.  Looking  down 
from  the  top  of  a  monument,  one  trembles  despite 
the  fact  that  he  knows  he  cannot  fall.  He  is  behind 
an  iron  raihng,  and  could  not  fall  if  he  wished ;  but 
this  knowledge  does  not  inhibit  the  reflex  visceral 
changes,  and  consequently  does  not  inhibit  fear. 
One  trembles  as  a  lion  springs  forward  in  his  cage. 
One  knows  perfectly  well  that  there  is  no  danger, 
and  may  even  feel  ashamed  at  his  own  apparent 
timidity;  yet  he  cannot  suppress  the  reaction  or  the 
corporeal  changes  that  give  rise  to  fear. 

The  bodily  changes  occur  reflexly,  and  they  are 
but  little  under  the  control  of  the  will.  For  this 
reason  intelligent  reflection  has  little  effect  upon  the 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  327 

feelings.  The  emotions  of  sorrow  and  anxiety  that 
one  experiences  in  a  theatre  are  not  dispelled  by  the 
thought  that  the  fair  maiden  is  paid  so  much  a  week 
for  being  killed  by  the  villain.  One's  syn^athy  with 
the  maiden  and  indignation  at  the  villain  are  none 
the  less  sincere.  But  the  emotions  cannot  be  con- 
trolled even  when  things  more  serious  are  at  stake. 
A  surgeon  would  scarcely  undertake  to  operate  on  a 
near  and  dear  relative,  for  he  knows  that  his  fear  and 
anxiety  cannot  be  subdued,  and  that  his  emotions  — 
try  as  he  may  to  suppress  them  —  will  render  him 
impotent  at  a  time  when  Kfe  and  death  depend  upon 
his  self-control. 

If  an  emotion  were  purely  cognitive,  there  would 
be  no  reason  why  it  should  ever  cease.  An  insult 
or  a  wrong  is  no  less  an  insult  or  a  wrong  because  it 
was  suffered  a  year  ago.  The  loss  of  a  friend  is  no 
less  a  bereavement  because  it  occurred  in  the  past. 
Yet  such  affairs  of  the  past  are  usually  viewed  with 
considerable  sang-froid.  The  knowledge  or  cognition, 
however,  has  not  changed.  The  physical  reactions 
have  merely  worn  themselves  out.^ 

Introspection  shows  that  emotion  is  nothing  more 
than  the  feeling  of  changes  proceeding  within  the  body: 

"If  one  notices  the  uncomfortable  mood  brought  about  by 
■  strained  expectation,  anxiety  before  a  public  address,  vexa- 

'  The  intensity  of  the  memory-images  would  have  to  be  con- 
sidered in  a  more  thorough  analysis  of  such  cases. 


328       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

tion  at  an  unmerited  affront,  etc.,  one  finds  that  the  suffering 
part  of  it  concentrates  itself  principally  in  the  chest,  and  that 
it  consists  in  a  soreness,  hardly  to  be  called  pain,  felt  in  the  middle 
of  the  breast  and  due  to  an  unpleasant  resistance  which  is  offered 
to  the  movements  of  inspiration  and  sets  a  Umit  to  their  extent. 
The  insufficiency  of  the  diaphragm  is  obtruded  upon  conscious- 
ness, and  we  try  by  the  aid  of  the  external  voluntary  chest 
muscles  to  draw  a  deeper  breath."  ^ 

These  physical  changes  giving  rise  to  emotion  are 
usually  so  numerous  and  subtle  that,  as  James  says, 
^'the  entire  organism  may  be  called  a  soimding- 
board,  which  every  change  of  consciousness,  however 
slight,  makes  reverberate."  The  feeling  of  these 
changes  alone  constitutes  the  emotion.  If  the  feel- 
ings are  subtracted,  no  emotional  coloring  remains. 

"What  kind  of  an  emotion  of  fear  would  be  left  if  the  feeling 
neither  of  the  quickened  heart-beats  nor  of  shallow  breathing, 
neither  of  the  trembling  lips  nor  of  weakened  limbs,  neither  of 
goose-flesh  nor  of  visceral  stirrings  were  present,  it  is  quite 
impossible  for  me  to  think.  Can  one  fancy  the  state  of  rage 
and  picture  no  ebullition  in  the  chest,  no  flushing  of  the  face, 
no  dilation  of  the  nostrils,  no  clenching  of  the  teeth,  no  impulse 
to  vigorous  action,  but  in  their  stead  limp  muscles,  calm  breath- 
ing, and  a  placid  face  ?  "  ^ 

It  is  manifest  that  if  the  physical  feehngs  were 
absent,  the  emotion  would  no  longer  exist.  The 
emotion  of  sorrow  often  has  its  nucleus  in  a  "lump 

*  James, "  Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  445  (quoting  Henle, 
"Natural  History  of  the  Sigh"). 
'James,  loc.  cit.y  p.  452. 


FEAR  AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  329 

in  the  throat."  A  slight  fear,  as  one  slips  on  the  stairs, 
is  often  nothing  more  than  a  momentary  ''chill"  in 
the  small  of  the  back.  Cutaneous  shivering  often 
constitutes  the  chief  part  of  the  emotiofi  that  one 
feels  when  hstening  to  poetry  or  music.  A  spinal 
chill  occurs  when  one  hstens  to  the  grating  of  two 
sharp  steel  edges.  The  chill  is  emotional  in  color- 
ing; yet  it  is  manifest  that  no  emotion  of  a  mental 
nature  is  present. 

The  physical  concomitants  of  emotion  are  often 
very  conspicuous.  A  severe  fright  may  bleach  the 
hair,  deprive  one  of  consciousness,  of  sight,  of  speech, 
or  of  the  use  of  one  or  more  of  the  limbs.^  A  milder 
fright  will  cure  hiccups  or  drunkenness,  —  likewise 
through  the  operation  of  corporeal  changes.  Blush- 
ing may  be  ''so  intense  as  to  cause  a  rash  afterward ; 
and,  in  rare  cases,  it  may  amount  almost  to  vesica- 
tion." 2 

Emotion  is  due  not  merely  to  the  grosser  physical 
changes  within  the  body;  but  also  to  chemical 
changes  in  the  tissues  and  to  activity  in  the  various 
glands.  These  chemical  changes,  as  well  as  the 
grosser  physical  changes,  can  often  be  artificially 
induced.  Drugs  may  transmute  the  whole  nature  of 
the  psychical  mood.     The  im.bibing  of  a  Httle  alcohol 

*  In  all  but  the  first  case,  through  the  mediation  of  cerebral  changes. 
2  G.  Stanley  Hall,  ''A  Study  of  Fears"  {Amer.  Jour,  of  Psych., 
January,  1897). 


330      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

will  change  one's  entire  outlook  upon  the  world. 
Imbibing  to  excess  inhibits  the  outlook  entirely. 
Hashish  produces  exaltation,  and  ipecacuanha  in- 
duces depression  or  fear. 

Bodily  diseases  affect  the  moods.  A  bad  case  of 
dyspepsia  is  apt  to  be  as  uncomfortable  for  the  im- 
mediate associates  of  the  patient  as  it  is  for  the  patient 
himself.  Diabetes  is  often  accompanied  by  depres- 
sion, and  phthisis  by  joyful  spirits.  These  emotions 
or  moods  are  physical  in  origin :  they  are  due  to 
chemical  changes  within  the  system.  Morbid  emo- 
tional conditions  are  often  due  to  disease.  Mel- 
ancholy may  result  from  a  blow  upon  the  head; 
cheerfulness  returns  when  an  operation  reheves  an 
abnormal  pressure  on  the  brain. 

"In  every  asylum  we  find  examples  of  absolutely  unmotived 
fear,  anger,  melancholy,  or  conceit ;  and  others  of  an  equally 
immotived  apathy,  which  persists  in  spite  of  the  best  of  out- 
ward reasons  why  it  should  give  way."  ^ 

The  thyroid  gland,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  larynx, 
is  in  some  inscrutable  way  intimately  connected  with 
the  emotional  Hfe  of  the  human  being.  Diseases 
of  the  thyroid  gland  are  usually  accompanied  by 
pronounced  emotional  disturbances.  Of  goitre,  an 
affection  of  this  particular  gland,  Havelock  Ellis 
says :  ^ 

*  James,  loc.  cit.,  p.  459. 

2  "Man  and  Woman,"  4th  ed.,  p.  268. 


FEAR   AND  AUTO-SUGGESTION  331 

"The  appearance  of  the  patient  suffering  from  this  disease 
—  the  staring  protruded  eyes,  the  breathlessness  and  rapid 
heart,  etc.  —  suggests  a  person  suffering  from  terror,  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  fright  has  often  formed  the  starting  point  of 
the  disease." 

Graves'  disease  is  a  somewhat  similar  disorder ;  and 
the  patient  suffering  from  it  presents  all  the  symptoms 
of  extreme  terror.  The  following  is  Dr.  Mackenzie's 
description  of  the  malady  :  ^ 

"Fright,  intense  grief,  and  other  profound  emotional  dis- 
turbances have  been  recognized  as  causes  of  the  pathological 
condition,  but  I  do  not  think  that  sufficient  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  very  close  connection  between  the  chronic  symptoms 
of  Graves'  disease  and  the  more  immediate  effects  of  terror. 
The  descriptions  given  by  Darwin  and  Sir  Charles  Bell  of  the 
condition  of  man  in  intense  fear  might  almost  have  been  written 
in  regard  to  one  of  the  patients  we  have  been  considering. 
The  heart  beats  quickly  and  violently,  so  that  it  palpitates  or 
knocks  against  the  ribs.  There  is  trembling  of  all  the  muscles 
of  the  body.  The  eyes  start  forward,  and  the  uncovered  and 
protruding  eyeballs  are  fixed  on  the  object  of  terror.  The 
surface  breaks  out  into  a  cold  clammy  sweat.  The  intestines 
are  affected.  The  skin  is  flushed  over  the  face  and  neck  down 
to  the  clavicles.  The  hair  stands  erect.  'Of  all  emotions, 
fear  notoriously  is  the  most  apt  to  induce  trembling.'  The 
symptoms  of  terror  are  common  to  man  and  the  lower  animals. 
There  are  one  or  two  of  the  minor  symptoms  of  Graves'  dis- 
ease   whose   independent   occurrence    under  the  influence  of 

1  Lancet,  September,  1890.  (Quoted  by  Ellis,  "  Man  and  Woman," 
4th  ed.,  p.  269.) 


332       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

emotion  is  well  known.    These  are  pigmentary  changes  in  the 
skin  and  hair,  falling  out  of  the  hair,  and  epistaxis." 

Patients  suffering  from  dyspepsia  often  manifest 
the  same  S3anptoms.  The  physical  changes  being 
present,  they  experience  the  emotion  of  fear ;  and  this 
fear  is  in  no  way  different  from  the  fear  that  would 
be  aroused  by  the  perception  of  some  fear-inducing 
object.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the  purely 
physical  fear  of  the  dyspeptic : 

"All  physicians  who  have  been  much  engaged  in  general 
practice  have  seen  cases  of  dyspepsia  in  which  constant  low 
spirits  and  occasional  attacks  of  terror  rendered  the  patient's 
condition  pitiable  in  the  extreme.  I  have  observed  these  cases 
often  and  have  watched  them  closely,  and  I  have  never  seen 
greater  suffering  of  any  kind  than  I  have  witnessed  during  these 
attacks.  .  .  .  Thus,  a  man  is  suffering  from  what  we  caU 
nervous  dyspepsia.  Some  day,  we  will  suppose  in  the  middle  of 
the  afternoon,  without  any  warning  or  visible  cause,  one  of  these 
attacks  of  terror  comes  on.  The  first  thing  the  man  feels  is 
great  but  vague  discomfort.  Then  he  notices  that  his  heart 
is  beating  much  too  violently.  At  the  same  time  shocks  or 
flashes  as  of  electrical  discharges,  so  violent  as  to  be  almost 
painful,  pass  one  after  another  through  his  body  and  limbs. 
Then  in  a  few  minutes  he  falls  into  a  condition  of  the  most  in- 
tense fear.  He  is  not  afraid  of  anything ;  he  is  simply  afraid. 
His  mind  is  perfectly  clear.  He  looks  for  a  cause  of  his  wretched 
condition,  but  sees  none.  Presently  his  terror  is  such  that  he 
trembles  violently  and  utters  low  moans;  his  body  is  damp 
with  perspiration;  his  mouth  is  perfectly  dry;  and  at  this 
stage  there  are  no  tears  in  his  eyes,  though  his  suffering  is  in- 


FEAR  AND   AUTO-SUGGESTION  333 

tense.  When  the  climax  of  the  attack  is  reached  and  passed, 
there  is  a  co{)ious  flow  of  tears,  or  else  a  mental  condition  in 
which  the  person  weeps  upon  the  least  provocation.  At  this 
stage  a  large  quantity  of  pale  urine  is  passed.  Then  the  heart's 
action  becomes  again  normal,  and  the  attack  passes  off."  ^ 

The  existence  of  these  purely  physiological  fears 
supplies  the  last  link  in  our  chain  of  evidence.  It 
should  now  be  clear  that  emotion  is  nothing  more  than 
the  feeling  of  bodily  changes  that  occur  in  response  to 
specific  stimuli.  With  the  origin  of  these  changes  we 
are  not  concerned.  The  reader  that  is  interested  in 
the  matter  is  referred  to  special  works  on  the  psy- 
chology of  the  emotions.^ 

In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  consider  briefly  the 
possibility  of  controlling  the  physical  reactions  that 
give  rise  to  fear. 

1  R.  M.  Bucke,  "Man's  Moral  Nature,"  p.  97.  (Quoted  by  James, 
"Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  460.) 

2  Darwin,  "The  Origin  of  the  Emotions";  Bain,  "The  Emotions 
and  the  Will";  Ribot,  "The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions";  James, 
"The  Principles  of  Psychology";  Spencer,  "The  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology"; etc. 


CHAPTER  X 

COROLLARIES 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  we  have  studied  the  causes 
of  stammering.  In  this  chapter  we  have  to  consider 
briefly  in  what  measure  these  causes  may  be  ob- 
viated. The  primary  cause  of  stammering,  it  has 
been  shown,  is  transient  auditory  amnesia.  The 
secondary,  or  auxihary,  causes  are  bewilderment; 
perversion  of  the  verbal  imagery ;  auto-suggestion  giv- 
ing rise  to  inhibition  of  the  will ;  and,  finally,  fear. 
The  use  of  physical  effort  in  speech  might  be  regarded 
as  another  of  the  mediate  causes  of  stammering; 
but  the  physical  stammering  to  which  it  gives  rise  is 
really  an  extraneous  symptom.  It  must  be  differen- 
tiated from  the  abnormal  speech  that  reflects  the 
verbal  imagery,  and  must  receive  its  special  form  of 
treatment. 

It  is  at  once  evident  that  the  secondary  causes  of 
stammering  are  themselves  effects  of  the  primary  cause. 
If  the  primary  cause,  auditory  amnesia,  could  be 
removed,  the  secondary  causes,  fear,  wavering  of  the 
will,  etc.,  would  quickly  vanish.  The  removal  of 
the  amnesia  is,  then,  of  chief  importance.     However, 

334 


COROLLARIES  335 

there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  secondary  causes 
are  chiefly  responsible  for  stammering  in  many  cases. 
When  elocutionary  methods  effect  a  cure,  as  they  do 
in  a  few  instances,  there  can  be  httle  amnesia  in- 
volved. One  must  conclude  that  in  such  cases  the 
secondary  causes  of  stammering  (the  efects  of  the  pri- 
mary disturbance)  persist  after  the  auditory  amnesia 
has  disappeared. 
p  The  stammerer  must  diagnose  his  own  case,  and 
determine  to  what  extent  each  of  the  several  causes 
conduces  to  the  disturbance  of  his  speech.  If  he 
finds  that  little  amnesia  is  present,  he  may  be  sure 
that  his  defect  of  speech  can  be  readily  overcome. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  various  secondary  causes 
of  stammering,  taking  them  in  the  order  of  conven- 
ience. Afterward,  we  shall  discuss  the  subject  of 
auditory  amnesia,  and  the  question  of  obviating  it. 
We  begin  with  the  discussion  of  fear. 

Fear 

Fear,  we  have  seen,  is  nothing  more  than  the  feel- 
ing of  certain  physical  changes  going  on  within  the 
body.  If  these  bodily  changes  could  be  prevented, 
the  emotion  would  not  arise.  Unfortunately,  most 
of  the  bodily  organs  in  which  these  changes  occur 
are  not  under  the  direct  control  of  the  will.  One  may 
change  the  facial  expression,  relax  the  tightened 
muscles,  and  alter  the  respiration;    but  one  cannot 


336      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

directly  control  the  subtile  activity  of  the  internal 
organs.  Within  certain  limits,  the  internal  changes 
are  subject  to  the  influence  of  physical  association; 
but  the  changes  cannot  be  directly  inhibited,  hence 
the  emotion  cannot  be  directly  controlled. 

James  advocates  the  practice  of  simulating  an 
opposite  emotion.  The  argument  is  that  the  volun- 
tary expression  of  the  emotion  induces,  to  some  extent, 
the  involuntary  physical  changes,  and  that  the  volun- 
tary and  involuntary  changes  are  then  felt  as  a  form 
of  the  emotion  simulated.  It  is  evident  that  the  un- 
desirable emotion  must  be  neutralized  if  the  assumed 
emotion  is  felt  even  to  a  sHght  degree,  for  the  two 
contrary  emotions  cannot  coexist.  James's  remarks 
on  the  subject  are  as  follows :  ^ 

"Refuse  to  express  a  passion,  and  it  dies.  Count  ten  before 
venting  your  anger,  and  its  occasion  seems  ridiculous.  Whist- 
ling to  keep  up  courage  is  no  mere  figure  of  speech.  On  the 
other  hand,  sit  all  day  in  a  moping  posture,  sigh,  and  reply  to 
everything  with  a  dismal  voice,  and  your  melancholy  lingers. 
There  is  no  more  valuable  precept  in  moral  education  than  this, 
as  all  who  have  experience  know :  if  we  wish  to  conquer  unde- 
sirable emotional  tendencies  in  ourselves,  we  must  assiduously, 
and  in  the  first  instance  cold-bloodedly,  go  through  the  out- 
ward movements  of  those  contrary  dispositions  which  we  prefer 
to  cultivate.  The  reward  of  persistence  will  infallibly  come, 
in  the  fading  out  of  the  sullenness  or  depression,  and  the  advent 
of  real  cheerfulness  and  kindliness  in  their  stead.     Smooth  the 

*  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  463. 


COROLLARIES  337 

brow,  brighten  the  eye,  contract  the  dorsal  rather  than  the 
ventral  aspect  of  the  frame,  and  speak  in  a  major  key,  pass  the 
genial  compliment,  and  your  heart  must  be  frigid  indeed  if  it 
does  not  gradually  thaw  ! " 

Emotions  can  sometimes  be  counteracted  in  a  meas- 
ure by  deliberate  analysis  of  them.  Fear  may  lose 
its  prestige  when  it  is  viewed  as  an  agglomeration 
of  bodily  sensations.  But  the  efhcacy  of  self-analysis 
is  determined  entirely  by  the  temperament.  With 
some  subjects  it  may  be  deleterious  rather  than  bene- 
ficial. 

The  stammerer  must,  as  far  as  possible,  annihilate 
fear-associations  —  or,  better,  prevent  their  forming  — 
by  dehberately  ignoring  failures  and  unpleasant  in- 
cidents. From  the  very  nature  of  the  human  mind, 
the  act  of  disregarding  such  incidents  must  tend,  by 
weakening  the  associations,  to  exclude  recollection  of 
them.  Brooding  over  failures  has  the  opposite  effect. 
It  tends  to  imprint  the  incidents  more  deeply  on  the 
mind,  and  to  endow  them  with  an  emotional  color- 
ing that  later  exerts  a  pernicious  influence. 

The  nature  of  the  emotional  Hfe  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  physical  condition.  A  person  in  ex- 
cellent health  is  little  subject  to  baseless  fears.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  person  that  is  ''run  down"  and 
''unstrung"  is  Hable  to  all  sorts  of  nervous  and 
emotional  disturbances.  Lowered  vitaHty  affects 
the  stammerer  in  a  number  of  ways.     It  not  only 


338      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

enhances  his  fear,  but  it  aggravates  the  amnesia.     The 
amnesia  and  fear  then  aggravate  each  other. 

Knowledge  is  the  greatest  counteractive  of  fear. 
''By  long  consent,  knowledge  is  power;  still  more 
emphatically  and  specially,  knowledge  is  composure" 
(Bain).  When  the  stammerer  knows  the  cause  of 
his  speech-disturbance,  he  feels  less  fear  at  its  advent. 
The  impediment  is  more  readily  surmounted,  and  even 
if  it  cannot  be  immediately  overcome,  it  is  at  least 
deprived  of  some  of  its  terrors. 

AUTO-SUGGESTION 

If  fear  and  auto-suggestion  were  the  sole  causes  of 
stammering,  hypnotism  would  afford  the  natural 
remedy  for  speech-defects.^  Many  reliable  hypno- 
tists affirm  that  they  have  cured  stammering  by  means 
of  suggestion,  but  the  more  rehable  among  them  admit 
that  they  have  generally  failed. 

Hypnotism  is  used  as  an  adjunct  in  some  of  the 
*' stammering-schools"  of  Europe,  more  particularly 
in  those  of  Germany.  The  hypnotists,  however, 
treat  merely  the  fear  and  lack  of  confidence  of  the 
stammerer;    thus   they  miss   the  primary  cause  of 

1  Hypnotism  is  still  regarded  by  a  good  many  people  as  a  species 
of  black  magic.  This  deplorable  ignorance  is  largely  imputable  to 
the  sensational  press  and  the  freebooters  of  the  vaudeville.  An 
exposition  on  hypnotism  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work.  The 
reader  wishing  information  on  hypnotism  is  directed  to  monographs 
dealing  with  the  subject. 


COROLLARIES  339 

the  speech-disturbance.  The  treatment  would  be 
effectual  if  it  were  possible  to  intensify  the  auditory 
imagery  and  to  inhibit  the  amnesia  by  means  of  post- 
hypnotic suggestion.  This  matter  deserves  thorough 
investigation.^ 

During  the  past  few  years  psychoanalysis  has  been 
employed  in  Europe  in  the  treatment  of  stammering, 
—  the  stammering  being  regarded  as  a  fear-neurosis. 
The  method  of  treatment  seems  to  be  no  more  effica- 
cious than  the  old  elocutionary  methods.  Various 
'^ psychological"  methods  are  vaunted  by  stammering- 
schools  in  Germany,  England, Switzerland,  and  Russia; 
but  these  ''methods"  are  generally  Httle  more  than 
advertising  attractions,  the  principal  "system"  being 
usually  an  elocutionary  one.  The  psychological 
methods  may  or  may  not  possess  inherent  virtues ; 
but  they  are  usually  applied  by  incompetents  (men 
that  are  neither  physicians  nor  psychologists) ;  hence 
the  success  derived  is  generally  nugatory. 

Counter  auto-suggestion  is  advocated  by  many 
persons  engaged  in  treating  stammering.  The  stam- 
merer is  taught  to  combat  his  lack  of  confidence 
with  the  counter-suggestions  of  "I  can  and  I  will," 
etc.  The  "I  can  and  will"  business  is  practically 
the  whole  stock  in  trade  of  many  illiterate  "speech 
specialists."     The  trouble  is  that  under  their  malev- 

^  The  writer  would  be  pleased  to  hear  from  investigators  the  re- 
sults of  any  researches  they  may  undertakein  this  field. 


340       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

olent  treatment,  the  stammerer  can't  and  doesn't. 
Mere  brute-will  accomplishes  nothing,  for  the  stam- 
merer does  not  know  what  he  is  trying  to  accomplish. 
He  tries  merely  to  speak,  without  knowing  anything 
of  the  psychological  process.  When  the  mental 
imagery  fails,  the  sheer  "I  will"  leads  to  physical 
effort.  Counter-suggestion,  when  appHed  in  a  general 
way,  is  egregious  nonsense.  It  may  be  efficacious  in 
counteracting  fear  and  ''delusional  behefs,"  but  its 
efficacy  in  any  particular  case  will  be  determined 
entirely  by  the  temperament  of  the  subject.  A  per- 
son of  emotional  temperament  might  find  counter- 
suggestion  extremely  beneficial;  but  one  possessed 
of  a  cool,  analytical  mind  would  doubtless  find  it 
futile.  The  former  would  do  well  to  meet  a  difficult 
situation  with  suggestions  of  his  perfect  confidence; 
the  latter  would  better  refuse  to  think  of  the  circum- 
stance, —  deliberately  turning  his  thoughts  to  other 
things  and  rel3dng  upon  an  intelligent  comprehension 
of  the  psychological  speech-processes  to  tide  him  over 
difficulties.^ 

Multiple  Thought 

There  is  no  indirect  method  of  attacking  multiple 
thought.  The  stammerer  must  simply  reahze  that 
the  verbal  imagery  is  absolute  in  determining  the 

^  The  psychological  systems  currently  employed  in  treating  stam- 
mering are  discussed  in  Vol.  II,  Chap.  VII. 


COROLLARIES  341 

nature  of  speech.  If  the  verbal  images  are  not  ex- 
pressed clearly  in  thought,  and  expressed  in  orderly 
consecution,  the  oral  words  cannot  under  any  pos- 
sible circumstances  be  clearly  spoken.  The  stam- 
merer is  always  tempted  to  substitute  synonyms  for 
difficult  words.  The  expedient  permits  him  to  enjoy 
a  transient  immunity  from  his  impediment.  Ulti- 
mately, of  course,  the  use  of  synonyms  aggravates 
the  disturbance  by  increasing  mental  confusion. 
The  stammerer  must  on  many  occasions  choose  be- 
tween two  evils.  He  may  speak  the  words  that  rise 
first  in  his  mind,  and  stammer  whenever  difficulty 
occurs;  or  he  may  re-frame  his  sentence  whenever 
he  encounters  an  obstacle.  The  latter  course  affords 
temporary  immunity;  and,  since  it  is  the  path  of 
least  resistance,  it  is  the  one  that  the  stammerer  will 
frequently  follow.  The  former,  however,  is  the  only 
possible  course  for  the  stammerer  to  pursue  if  he  is 
finally  to  overcome  his  difficult}^ 

When  the  impediment  is  severe,  the  stammerer 
can  readily  overcome  the  tendency  to  employ  syno- 
nyms. He  finds  most  words  difficult ;  consequently 
it  is  an  easy  matter  for  him  to  treat  them  impartially. 
When  the  disturbance  is  sHght,  the  stammerer  is 
tempted  to  conceal  his  impediment  by  resorting  to 
synonyms.  It  is  the  stammerer  of  the  latter  type 
that  will  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  restraining 
multiple  thought. 


342      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

It  is  not  advisable  for  the  average  stammerer  to 
frame  each  sentence  before  speaking  it,  though  he  is 
frequently  advised  to  do  so.  This  method  of  think- 
ing the  words  first  and  speaking  them  afterward  is 
entirely  unnatural.  The  average  stammerer  would 
be  tempted  to  pick  and  choose  his  words  while  fram- 
ing the  sentence,  and  confusion  would  ensue  even  in 
this  preHminary  thought.  Further,  the  appearance 
of  a  difficult  word  in  the  sentence  would  augment  the 
speaker's  fear  and  thus  increase  his  predicament. 
It  is  better  for  the  stammerer  to  speak  each  word  as  it 
rises  in  his  mind  and  to  treat  difficult  and  easy  words 
impartially.  If  he  is  greatly  tempted  to  replace 
difficult  words  by  synonyms,  he  might  find  it  desir- 
able (if  he  visualizes  readily)  to  hold  a  visual  image 
of  the  refractory  word  before  his  mind.  This  image 
would  focus  the  attention,  and  to  some  extent  counter- 
act the  tendency  to  substitute. 

Distortion  of  Imagery 

Distorted  verbal  imagery  is  easily  corrected  if 
the  stammerer  can  find  any  circumstance  under 
which  he  can  speak  with  fluency.  Even  if  the 
stammerer  cannot  speak  with  fluency  when  alone, 
he  can  usually  enunciate  freely  when  speaking  in 
unison  with  another  person,  or  when  repeating  the 
words  that  another  person  has  just  uttered.  Suffi- 
cient practice  in  natural  speech  under  these  condi- 


COROLLARIES  343 

tions,  or  under  any  conditions,  will  restore  the  verbal 
imagery. 

Stammering  that  has  been  induced  by  imitation  or 
association  is  usually  compKcated  by  such  secondary 
causes  as  inhibitive  auto-suggestion  and  fear.  These 
causes  must,  of  course,  be  combated  as  well  as  the 
distortion  of  the  imagery.  The  stammerer  must 
determine  for  himself  to  what  extent  unnatural  im- 
agery is  responsible  for  unnatural  speech.  If  he 
speaks  fluently  when  alone,  it  is  certain  that  the  dis- 
tortion of  the  imagery  is  not  solely  responsible  for  the 
speech-disturbance,  —  unless,  of  course,  he  finds  that 
distorted  images  are  redintegrated  only  in  an  un- 
favorable environment.  Such  a  condition  of  affairs 
seems,  however,  highly  improbable.  In  any  case, 
distorted  imagery  is  easily  rectified ;  and  when  the 
impediment  is  due  solely  to  this  cause,  it  can  be  readily 
overcome. 

Physical  Stammering 

Physical  stammering  is  easily  eradicated  by  elocu- 
tionary methods.  In  most  cases  it  can  be  eHminated 
in  two  or  three  weeks  by  careful  training.  By  remov- 
ing the  secondary  symptoms  of  amnesia,  elocutionary 
training  often  seems  to  effect  a  miraculous  improve- 
ment within  a  brief  space  of  time ;  but  the  improve- 
ment seldom  progresses  to  a  cure,  for  the  amnesia 
remains  unalleviated. 

The  intractability  of  a  case  is  proportional  to  the 


344      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

severity  of  the  amnesia  and  not  to  the  severity  of  the 
physical  stammering.     Bell  has  remarked  that^  — 

"A  case  of  apparently  slight  impediment  is  frequently 
more  tedious  and  difficult  to  cure  than  one  of  the  most  bois- 
terous and  convulsive  aspect."  ^ 

The  boisterous  and  convulsive  aspect  results  from 
physical  stammering,  and  it  can  be  readily  eliminated. 
It  bears  no  necessary  relation  to  the  severity  of  the 
amnesia.  The  amnesia  may  be  severe  and  no  physical 
stammering  be  present.  Liebmann  says  of  a  partic- 
ular case  of  passive  stammering :  ^ 

"One  can  see  plainly  that  the  patient  wishes  to  answer; 
but  she  cannot  do  so,  either  aloud  or  in  a  whisper.  One  can 
detect  no  articulatory  movements,  and  the  pneumograph  shows 
a  normal  respiration-curve.  Only  after  some  time  does  the 
patient  begin  to  speak;  and  then  she  does  so  in  a  fluent  and 
normal  manner.  The  patient  says  that  she  knows  the  answer, 
but  is  simply  unable  to  say  it."  * 

In  cases  of  this  nature  there  is  no  physical  stam- 
mering, and  elocutionary  methods  would  be  practi- 
cally unavailing. 

Of  the  elocutionary  systems  it  may  be  said  that 
most  of  them  will  rectify  the  stammerer's  errors  of 

^  "Principles  of  Speech,"  5th  ed.,  p.  236. 

?  See  also  H.  Gutzmann,  "Sprachheilkunde,"  2d  ed.,  pp.  446-447. 

'  "Vorlesungen  iiber  Sprachstorungen,"  i.  Heft,  p.  27. 

*  See  also  p.  209  of  this  volume  for  Gutzmann's  statement, 
"There  are  stammerers  that  never  stumble  in  speech,  but  that 
stammer,  nevertheless." 


COROLLARIES  345 

respiration,  phonation,  and  articulation;  and  that 
most  of  them  are  therefore  good  so  far  as  they  go. 
The  trouble  is  that  they  do  not  go  far  enough:  they 
treat  only  the  symptoms,  but  not  the  cause  of  the 
speech-defect. 

A  detailed  discussion  of  the  merits  and  demerits  of 
the  various  systems  is,  of  course,  beyond  the  scope 
of  the  present  chapter :  the  subject  has  been  reserved 
for  the  succeeding  volume.  A  few  general  remarks 
at  this  point  may,  however,  be  pertinent. 

It  may  be  stated  that  the  time-beating  system  — 
which  has  its  widest  vogue  in  America  —  is  directly 
pernicious,  since  it  distorts  the  stammerer's  verbal 
imagery.^ 

Many  systems  viciously  overemphasize  articulation, 
and  thus  tend  to  confirm  an  erroneous  attitude  that 
most  stammerers  have  toward  speech.  The  average 
stammerer  gives  the  greater  part  of  his  attention  to  sen- 
sations from  the  speech-organs,  and  very  little  attention 
to  the  verbal  image  by  which  the  word  is  initiated.  The 
afferent  stimuH,  however,  do  not  facihtate  utterance ; 
rather  they  divert  attention  from  the  point  on  which 
it  should  be  focussed.  Hence  any  system  that  over- 
emphasizes articulation  is  nocuous  in  such  respect. 

Under  some  elocutionary  systems  the  pupil  is  taught 
to  note  the  words  on  which  he  stammers,  and  to 
practise  these  words  together  with  various  alKterations 
*  This  remark  applies  to  any  system  based  upon  rhythm. 


346      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

that  introduce  the  '^difficult  consonants."  The 
practice  is  pernicious,  since  it  establishes  fear-associa- 
tions. The  stammerer  acquires  fear  of  certain  words 
and  letters;  and  when  these  words  or  letters  recur, 
fear  augments  his  difficulty.  The  practice  develops 
lalophobia,  but  does  absolutely  no  good  to  compensate 
for  the  evil  it  engenders. 

Pure  Stammering 

It  is  evident  that  after  the  stammerer  has  overcome 
physical  stammering,  distortion  of  the  imagery, 
multiple  thought,  fear,  and  inhibitive  auto-suggestion 

—  all  these  being  secondary  causes  or  manifestations 
of  the  defect  —  he  has  still  the  auditory  amnesia  to 
contend  with.  At  best  he  has  reduced  his  complex 
stammering  to  pure  stammering :  he  has  reduced  the 
disturbance  to  its  lowest  terms.  But  in  many  cases 
no  severe  stammering  will  remain,  and  the  sHght 
remnant  of  the  defect  may  cause  little  inconvenience. 
The  auditory  amnesia  is  often  induced  by  the  secon- 
dary causes,  and  so  may  disappear  when  these  causes 
are  removed.  However,  this  is  not  invariably  the 
case;  hence  we  have  to  consider  the  question  of 
obviating  the  amnesia  itself. 

Two  questions  naturally  suggest  themselves :  First 

—  Can  the  refractory  auditory  image  be  goaded  into 
activity  by  artificial  means  ?  Secondly  —  Can  the 
auditory  image   be  strengthened  so   that  it  will  be 


COROLLARIES  347 

less  likely  to  vanish  ?  ^    These  two  questions  must  be 
considered  at  length. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  auditory  sensa- 
tions facilitate  the  redintegration  of  auditory  images. 
Paulhan  remarks  that  the  sound  of  a  train  or  a  water- 
fall m^akes  it  easier  for  him  to  recall  tunes  in  auditory 
memory.^  Illusions  of  hearing  are  common,  —  un- 
doubtedly more  common  than  those  of  sight.  This 
fact  shows  that  auditory  images  are  easily  awakened 
by  more  or  less  irrelevant  auditory  impressions.  In 
certain  cases  one  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  audi- 
tory sensations  for  the  arousal  of  auditory  images. 
For  instance,  there  are  many  people  with  weak  audi- 
tory imagery  that  can  whistle  a  tune  audibly,  though 
they  cannot  whistle  in  mental  imagery.  It  is  per- 
fectly clear  that  they  do  not  recall  the  tune  in  kin- 
aesthetic  imagery ;  hence  the  auditory  images  of  the 
various  notes  must  be  aroused  by  the  acoustic  sen- 
sations from  the  notes  that  precede  them. 

^  There  can,  of  course,  be  no  assumption  of  function  by  the  op)- 
posite  hemisphere  of  the  brain.  The  defect  in  the  auditor>'  centre 
appears  to  be  usually  functional  rather  than  organic,  and  the  stam- 
merer is  not  incapacitated  for  silent  thought.  Hence,  even  in  young 
children  no  transference  of  function  takes  place.  Any  lesion  that  is 
sufficiently  severe  to  occasion  transference  of  function  is  sufficiently 
severe  to  induce  aphasia  rather  than  stammering.  Transference  of 
function,  in  cases  of  stammering,  is  therefore  out  of  the  question. 

2  "Le  langage  int^rieur"  {Revue  philosophique,  Janvier,  1866,  p. 
34).     Cited  by  Ballet,  "Le  langage  int6rieur,"  2d  ed.,  p.  22. 


348      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Most  stammerers  find  that  they  can  speak  better  in 
the  presence  of  sounds  that  the  average  person  would 
consider  distracting.  The  noise  of  a  train,  the  clatter 
of  vehicles,  or  the  sound  of  voices  seems  to  exert  a 
beneficial  influence  upon  the  stammerer's  speech. 
The  sound  of  human  voices  is  particularly  salutary. 
The  average  stammerer  finds  that  he  can  speak  with 
unusual  fluency  if  a  number  of  persons  happen  to  be 
speaking  within  hearing-distance.  The  explanation 
for  this  fluency  is  that  the  auditory  sensations 
faciHtate  the  arousal  of  the  auditory  images  reqmsite 
for  speech.  It  seems  as  though  activity  in  the  cells 
subserving  the  sensations  renders  the  contiguous  cells 
more  excitable. 

Lunn  says :  ^ 

"It  has  often  been  remarked  that  deaf  people  hear  best  in 
a  noise,  as  in  railway  travelling." 

Here,  again,  we  must  suppose  that  the  extraneous 
sotmds  assist  in  overcoming  the  inertia  of  the  auditory 
cells. 

The  fact  that  an  acoustic  sensation  may  awaken 
the  refractory  auditory  image  affords  a  cogent  reason 
why  the  stammerer  should  commence  the  articula- 
tion of  a  word  even  if  its  auditory  image  is  not  at  once 
forthcoming.  The  initial  consonant  can  be  produced 
by  kinaesthetic  cues ;  and  the  sound  of  this  consonant 

,  ^  The  Voice,  Vol.  V,  p.  133. 


COROLLARIES  349 

will  often  arouse  the  indolent  auditory  image  —  or 
intensify  it  if  it  should  be  too  weak  to  prompt  the 
enunciation  of  a  word.  Further,  the  kinaesthetic 
sensation  tends  to  arouse  the  auditory  image  by  as- 
sociation. When  the  association  is  itself  inadequate, 
the  sound-irnpression  may  often  turn  the  balance. 

There  is  another  cogent  reason  why  the  stammerer 
should  commence  the  articulation  of  a  refactory  word. 
The  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  word  ehmi- 
nates  multiple  thought  and  vacillation  of  the  will  — 
elements  that  might  otherwise  exert  a  disturbing  in- 
fluence. The  procedure  advocated  will,  of  course, 
occasionally  introduce  pure  stammering  in  place  of  a 
silent  pause.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  often  obviate 
stammering  and  pauses  entirely.  Its  advantages  on 
the  whole  greatly  outweigh  any  disadvantages  that  it 
might  be  thought  to  entail. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  many  empirical  sys- 
tems have  taken  advantage  of  this  tendency  of  the 
auditory  sensation  to  awaken  the  sound-image.  The 
stammerer  is  frequently  told  to  prelude  his  words 
with  a  short  e  (e)  or  with  the  sound  of  the  consonant 
m  or  n.  The  word  yes  then  becomes  eh-yes,  m-yes,  or 
n-yes.  This  artifice  is  thought  to  enable  the  stam- 
merer to  vocalize  after  the  consonant  has  been  articu- 
lated, it  being  assumed  that  the  stammerer's  diffi- 
culty lies  with  phonation.  The  vocaHzation  is  supposed 
to  continue  during  the  articulation  of  the  consonant, 


350       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

and  the  stammerer  is  admonished  to  maintain  con- 
tinuity of  sound  throughout  the  sentence.  There  can, 
of  course,  be  no  such  continuity,  for  vocalization  ceases 
with  every  surd  consonant.  If  the  initial  consonant  is 
mute,  vocalization  is  interrupted  even  between  the  in- 
troductory sound  and  the  vowel.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  the  introductory  sound  does  not  perform  the 
fimction  attributed  to  it.  If  it  renders  assistance  at 
all,  it  does  so  by  arousing  the  torpid  auditory  image. ^ 
It  seems  possible  that  the  auditory  image  might 
be  aroused  more  readily  if  it  were  associated  with 
some  visual  image  that  could  be  clearly  and  promptly 
redintegrated.  The  visual  image  would  then  form 
a  nucleus  to  which  one  could  resort  if  the  auditory 
image  were  not  at  once  forthcoming.  It  would  hold 
attention  for  the  sound  required,  and  tend  to  arouse 
this  sound  by  association.  In  many  cases  there  seems 
to  be  no  difficulty  whatever  in  reviving  the  auditory 
image  when  an  associated  visual  nucleus  is  present. 
Many  stammerers  can  read  without  difficulty,  though 
they  cannot  carry  on  a  fluent  conversation.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  even  aphasic  patients  are  some- 
times able  to  read  fluently  when  they  are  incapable 
of  spontaneous  speech.  The  rationale  of  this  seems 
to  be  that  the  visual  stimulus  arouses  the  auditory 

^  The  stammerer  is  not  recommended  to  resort  to  the  unnatural 
expedient  described.  This  particular  device  is  cited  merely  to 
illustrate  the  principle  under  discussion. 


COROLLARIES  351 

image  by  association,  or  that  it  arouses  the  kin- 
aesthetic  image  directly,  acting  itself  as  a  remote  in- 
citing image.  But  whatever  the  subjective  process 
may  be,  it  is  certain  that  visual  verbal  images  often 
facilitate  speech.  The  stammerer  that  can  read  with 
fluency  should  have  Httle  difl&culty  in  speech  if  he 
could  bring  before  his  mind  visual  images  of  the  words 
that  he  utters.  The  process  would  be  analogous  to 
ordinary  reading. 

Many  subjects  would  have  no  difficulty  in  visualiz- 
ing words  during  speech,  but  others  would  find  the 
visuahzing  of  polysyllabic  words  practically  impossible. 
The  idea  naturally  suggests  itself  that  one  might  visu- 
alize only  the  vowel,  for  the  visual  image  of  the  vowel 
should  tend  to  arouse  the  mental  image  of  its  sound. 
The  phenomenon  of  chromsesthesia,  or  color-audition, 
suggests  further  that  one  might  visualize  the  printed 
or  written  vowels  in  colors  or  upon  colored  back- 
grounds. This  would  make  visuaHzation  easier  for 
a  person  possessed  of  strong  color-imagery,  and  in 
many  instances  would  facilitate  visuaHzation  of  the 
entire  word.  This  visuaHzing  of  colored  words  and 
colored  vowels,  it  will  be  remembered,^  is  quite  natural 
with  some  persons;  and  when  the  color-imagery  is 
naturally  strong,  it  does  not  prove  at  all  distracting. 
Galton  says  in  reference  to  the  phenomenon :  - 

1  See  p.  39. 

'"Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  and  its  Development,"  p.  148. 


352       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF   STAMMERING 

"I  will  simply  remark  —  First,  that  the  persistence  of  colour 
association  with  sounds  is  fully  as  remarkable  as  that  of  the 
Number-Form  with  numbers.  Secondly,  that  the  vowel  sounds 
chiefly  evoke  them.  Thirdly,  that  the  seers  are  invariably 
most  minute  in  their  description  of  the  precise  tint  and  hue  of 
the  colour.  They  are  never  satisfied,  for  instance,  with  saying 
'blue,'  but  will  take  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  express  or  to 
match  the  particular  blue  they  mean.  Fourthly,  that  no  two 
people  agree,  or  hardly  ever  do  so,  as  to  the  colour  they  associate 
with  the  same  sound.  Lastly,  that  the  tendency  is  very  heredi- 
tary." 

Galton  quotes  the  following  description  of  vowel- 
imagery  by  "Mrs.  H.,  the  married  sister  of  a  well- 
known  man  of  science  "  :  ^ 

"'I  do  not  know  how  it  is  with  others,  but  to  me  the  colours 
of  vowels  are  so  strongly  marked  that  I  hardly  understand 
their  appearing  of  a  different  colour,  or,  what  is  nearly  as  bad, 
colourless  to  any  one.  To  me  they  are  and  always  have  been, 
as  long  as  I  have  known  them,  of  the  following  tints :  — 

"M,  pure  white,  and  like  china  in  texture. 

"'£,  red,  not  transparent;  vermilion,  with  china-white, 
would  represent  it. 

" '  /,  Hght  bright  yellow ;  gamboge. 

" '  O,  black,  but  transparent ;  the  colour  of  deep  water  seen 
through  thick  clear  ice. 

" '  U,  purple. 

"  '  F,  a  dingier  colour  than  /. 

"'The  shorter  sounds  of  the  vowels  are  less  vivid  and  pure 
in  colour.  Consonants  are  almost  or  quite  colourless  to  me, 
though  there  is  some  blackness  about  M. 

*  Loc.  cit.y  pp.  150-151. 


COROLLARIES  353 

"'Some  association  with  U  in  the  words  blue  and  purple 
may  account  for  that  colour,  and  possibly  the  E  in  red  may  have 
to  do  with  that  also ;  but  I  feel  as  if  they  were  independent  of 
suggestions  of  that  kind. 

"'My  first  impulse  is  to  say  that  the  association  lies  solely 
in  the  sounds  of  the  vowels,  in  which  connection  I  certainly 
feel  it  most  strongly;  but  then  the  thought  of  the  distinct 
redness  of  such  a  [printed  or  written]  word  as  " great '^  shows 
me  that  the  relation  must  be  visual  as  well  as  aural.  The  mean- 
ing of  words  is  so  unavoidably  associated  with  the  sight  of  them, 
that  I  think  this  association  rather  overrides  the  primitive 
impression  of  the  colour  of  the  vowels,  and  the  word  "violet" 
reminds  me  of  its  proper  colour  until  I  look  at  the  word  as  a 
mere  collection  of  letters. 

" 'Of  my  two  daughters,  one  sees  the  colours  quite  differently 
from  this  {A,  blue;  E,  white;  /,  black;  O,  whity-brownish ; 
U,  opaque  brown).  The  other  is  only  heterodox  on  the  A 
and  0 ;  A  being  with  her  black,  and  0  white.  My  sister  and 
I  never  agreed  about  these  colours,  and  I  doubt  whether  my 
two  brothers  feel  the  chromatic  force  of  the  vowels  at  all.'" 

Another  correspondent  says  that  A  is  brown,  vary- 
ing in  shade  according  to  the  ''openness"  of  the  vowel. 
E  is  clear,  cold,  hght-gray  blue.  /  is  associated  with 
black  and  0  with  white.  The  correspondent  sug- 
gests that  the  soHd  type  in  /  and  the  open  space  in  O 
may  explain  the  colors  with  which  these  letters  are 
associated.  R  is  copper-colored.  This  correspondent 
gives  the  word  visualization  represented  in  streaks  of 
color,  and  proceeding  conversely  gives  the  verbal 
interpretation  of  the  colors  in  several  scraps  of  wall- 
paper. 


354       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

Obviously,  it  would  be  an  easy  matter  for  the  stam- 
merer to  establish  associations  of  this  kind.^  The 
associations  would  doubtless  be  beneficial  to  the 
stammerer  that  is  assisted  by  visual  impressions  in 
reading.  Theoretically,  the  associations  should  prove 
beneficial  in  any  case.  The  writer  has  made  no  in- 
vestigations along  this  line.  The  matter  has  been 
discussed  merely  to  suggest  a  possible  method  by 
which  the  auditory  image  might  be  aroused  through 
associational  channels. 

Many  psychologists  have  expressed  the  opinion  that 
the  mental  imagery  itself  can  be  directly  developed  and 
intensified.  Unfortunately,  most  accounts  of  image- 
training  deal  exclusively  with  the  visual  imagery. 
However,  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  if  the 
optical  images  can  be  developed,  the  acoustic  images 
can  be  developed  also.  For  developing  the  visualiz- 
ing faculty,  Galton  advocates  the  practice  of  retaining 
the  primary  memory-image  and  examining  it  for 
details  that  escaped  observation  during  actual  per- 

*  The  association  is  one  of  temporal  contiguity.  One  must 
receive  simultaneous  impressions  through  the  sense  of  hearing  and 
the  sense  of  sight.  One  pronounces  the  vowel-sound  while  looking 
at  the  object  (colored  letter,  solid  color,  or  white  letter  on  a  colored 
background)  with  which  it  is  to  be  associated.  Afterward,  the 
vowel-sound  is  associated  with  its  letter  or  color  in  mental  imagery. 
For  preference,  the  short  vowels  should  be  associated  with  the  more 
vivid  colors. 


COROLLARIES  355 

ception.     He  also  advocates  the  practice  of  multiply- 
ing associations.    Concerning  the  latter  point  he  says :  ^ 

"The  chief  art  of  strengthening  visual  as  well  as  every  form 
of  memory,  lies  in  multiplying  associations ;  the  healthiest 
memory  being  that  in  which  all  the  associations  are  logical, 
and  toward  which  all  the  senses  concur  in  their  due  proportion. 
It  is  wonderful  how  much  the  vividness  of  a  recollection  is 
increased  Vv^hen  two  or  more  lines  of  association  are  simulta- 
neously excited.  Thus  the  inside  of  a  known  house  is  much 
better  visualized  when  we  are  looking  at  its  outside  than  when 
we  are  away  from  it,  and  some  chess-players  have  told  me  that 
it  is  easier  for  them  to  play  a  game  from  memory  when  they 
have  a  blank  board  before  them  than  when  they  have  not." 

In  another  place  the  writer  says :  ^ 

"There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  visualizing  faculty 
admits  of  being  developed  by  education.  The  testimony  on 
which  I  would  lay  especial  stress  is  derived  from  the  pubhshed 
experiences  of  M.  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran,  late  director  of  the 
Ecole  Nationale  de  Dessein,  in  Paris,  which  are  related  in  his 
"  Education  de  la  Memoire  Pittoresque."  ^  He  trained  his  pupils 
with  extraordinary  success,  beginning  with  the  simplest  figures. 
They  were  made  to  study  the  models  thoroughly  before  they 
tried  to  draw  them  from  memory.  One  favorite  expedient  was 
to  associate  the  sight  memory  with  the  muscular  memory,  by 
making  his  pupils  follow  at  a  distance  the  outlines  of  the  figures 
with  a  pencil  held  in  their  hands.  After  three  or  four  months' 
practice  their  visual  memory  became  greatly  strengthened. 
They  had  no  difficulty  in  summoning  images  at  will,  in  holding 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  108.  2  i^Q(^^  c//^  pp  105-106. 

^  "  Republished  in  an  8vo,  entitled  *  Enseignment  Artistique.* 
Morel  et  Cie,  Paris,  1879." 


356      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

them  steady,  and  in  drawing  them.  Their  copies  were  executed 
with  marvellous  fidelity,  as  attested  by  a  commission  of  the 
Institute,  appointed  in  1852  to  inquire  into  the  matter,  of  which 
the  eminent  painter  Horace  Vernet  was  a  member.  The  present 
Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Arts  at  University  College,  M.  L^gros, 
was  a  pupil  of  M.  de  Boisbaudran.  He  has  expressed  to  me 
his  indebtedness  to  the  system,  and  he  has  assured  me  of  his 
own  success  in  teaching  others  in  a  somewhat  similar  way." 

In  spite  of  this  opinion  it  seems  to  be  a  moot  ques- 
tion whether  the  visual  images  were  actually  intensi- 
fied. Many  of  the  subjects  may  have  been  motiles, 
and  their  improvement  in  drawing  may  have  been  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  relied  upon  the  motor  as  well  as 
the  visual  memory.  However,  Galton  is  not  ambigu- 
ous in  his  opinion  concerning  the  possibility  of  in- 
tensifying the  visual  images  themselves,  for  he  says :  ^ 

"I  could  mention  instances  within  my  own  experience  in 
which  the  visualizing  faculty  has  become  strengthened  by 
practice ;  notably  one  of  an  eminent  electrical  engineer,  who 
had  the  power  of  recalling  form  with  unusual  precision,  but  not 
color.  A  few  weeks  after  he  had  replied  to  my  questions,  he 
told  me  that  my  inquiries  had  induced  him  to  practise  his 
color  memory,  and  that  he  had  done  so  with  such  success  that 
he  was  become  quite  an  adept  at  it,  and  that  the  newly  acquired 
power  was  a  source  of  much  pleasure  to  him." 

A  single  report  of  this  kind  is  worth  a  hundred 
general  opinions  concerning  the  possibility  of  training 
the  mental  imagery.  Unfortunately,  such  reports  are 
rare. 

*  Loc.  cii.y  pp.  106-107. 


COROLLARIES  357 

An  interesting  account  of  "An  Attempt  to  Train 
the  Visual  Memory"  appears  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Psychology}  The  writer  says  of  her  mental  imagery 
previous  to  the  experiment : 

"It  was  predominantly  verbal-auditory  and  verbal-motor, 
with  the  first  factor  a  little  in  the  lead. 

"The  direct  visual  memory  was  somewhat  developed,  though 
not  to  the  same  degree  as  in  most  persons.  E.g.,  the  name  of 
some  one  whom  I  knew  rather  well  would  almost  invariably 
call  up  a  visual  image,  and  with  some  effort  I  could  make  its 
details  (form  and  color)  fairly  distinct.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
I  now  see  upon  looking  back,  class-names  very  seldom  called 
up  a  visual  impression. 

-  "  My  verbal-visual  memory  was  very  defective.  Dates  I  or- 
dinarily visualized,  but  not  words.  So  far  as  I  know,  I  had  never 
at  this  time  had  a  visual  picture  of  a  written  or  printed  word. 
Of  course  it  is  possible,  however,  that  just  as  one  may  have  a 
visual  local  sign  without  being  aware  of  it  until  one's  attention 
is  called  to  the  matter,  so  I  may  have  had  visual-verbal  images, 
which  served  their  purpose  in  associations  without  rising  into 
distinct  consciousness." 

When  listening  to  reading,  the  writer  was  never 
conscious  of  visualized  words  appearing  before  her 
mind.  She  seemed  to  hear  the  words  again  in  her 
own  voice  and  feel  them  forming  in  her  throat.  This 
imagery  was,  of  course,  both  auditory  and  kin- 
aesthetic. 

The  method  pursued  in  developing  the  visualizing 
faculty  was  to  read  a  few  Hnes  of  poetry;    then  to 

iVol.  Vni,  pp.  4i4ff- 


358       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

close  the  eyes  and  give  as  full  a  description  as  possible 
of  the  disposition  of  the  lines  and  words,  and  any  de- 
tails that  could  be  remembered.  This  description 
was  recorded,  and  its  accuracy  tested  by  reference  to 
the  original  page.  In  another  exercise,  Japanese 
pictures  were  scrutinized  for  ten  seconds  and  then 
roughly  sketched  from  memory,  the  sketch  being 
supplemented  by  an  oral  description.  Comparison 
was  then  made  with  the  original. 

Concerning  the  results  at  the  end  of  six  months' 
practice,  the  writer  says : 

"With  the  poetry  my  work  improved  steadily  from  first 
to  last.  At  the  outset  six  or  seven  lines  was  as  much  as  I 
could  keep  in  mind  at  once ;  near  the  close  of  the  work  I  could 
sometimes  give  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  without  a  mistake. 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  I  did  not  always  succeed 
in  making  my  memory  purely  visual;  often  I  found  myself 
remembering  the  length  of  a  fine  in  terms  of  eye-movements. 

"  With  the  pictures  the  progress  was  not  so  evident.  Natu- 
rally it  was  harder  in  this  case  to  say  whether  one  was  improving 
or  not ;  especially  as  each  picture  in  the  set  was  given  several 
times.  I  am  inclined  to  think  there  was  a  slight  improve- 
ment, but  it  certainly  was  not  marked.  .  .  . 

"At  the  present  time,  seven  months  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  work,  I  notice  considerable  improvement,  both  in  the 
direct  visual  and  in  the  verbal-visual  memory.  In  attempting 
very  recently  to  commit  some  poetry,  I  found  myself  depending 
to  a  considerable  extent  upon  my  verbal- visual  memory,  whereas 
a  year  and  a  half  ago  I  should  have  relied  wholly  upon  my 
verbal-auditory  and  verbal-motor  memories.  The  effect  of 
the  change  was  apparent  rather  in  greater  accuracy  than  in  in- 


COROLLARIES  359 

creased  speed  of  memorizing.  In  my  general  reading,  too,  I 
have  more  pictures  than  I  used  to  have.  I  am  not  conscious 
of  visualizing  any  better  than  formerly — i.e.,  with  any  more 
detail,  —  but  I  am  conscious  of  visuahzing  more  frequently." 

One  would  judge  from  this  report  that  there  was 
certainly  no  marked  change  in  the  intensity  of  the 
visual  images.  The  results  do  not  strongly  support 
the  notion  that  the  mental  images  are  always  re- 
sponsive to  training.  Nevertheless,  opinions  similar 
to  the  following  are  frequently  expressed  by  psy- 
chologists :  ^ 

"It  is  astonishing  to  observe  how  rapidly  this  capacity  for 
visuaHsing  unfolds  in  response  to  a  little  systematic  effort  and 
practice.  By  devoting  to  the  task  a  few  minutes  each  day  for  a 
week,  one  may  learn  to  visualise  with  great  detail  and  remark- 
able accuracy  the  form,  size,  color,  etc.,  of  even  large  and  com- 
plex objects,  such,  for  example,  as  great  buildings.  Frequently 
at  the  outset  we  find  that  our  images  are  relatively  faint,  meagre, 
and  unstable;  they  lack  vividness  and  veracity  in  color, 
detail  in  form,  and  appropriate  dimensions  in  size.  Images  of 
other  varieties,  auditory,  for  instance,  are  similarly  defective 
at  times,  and  yield  as  a  rule  to  discipline  with  a  corresponding 
form  of  development." 

Direct  accounts  of  attempts  to  train  the  auditory 
imagery  are  extremely  rare  in  the  literature  of  psy- 
chology. General  statements  that  the  development 
can  be  effected  are,  on  the  contrary,  common  enough. 
The  method  to  be  pursued  is  evident.     One  must 

*  Angell,  "Psychology,"  pp.  218-219. 


36o      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

attend  closely  to  the  auditory  sensations  (which 
should  be  made  as  clear  and  sharp  as  possible),  and 
must  allow  the  primary  image  to  "ring"  through  the 
mind.  One  must  continually  recall  the  image,  and 
must  endeavor  to  preserve  its  fidelity.  Secondary 
memory-images  must  likewise  be  made  the  subject 
of  attention,  and  one  must  endeavor  to  increase  the 
intensity  of  the  image  with  each  repetition.  The 
whole  matter  is  simply  one  of  introspection  and  at- 
tention. It  is  practically  certain,  however,  that 
whatever  results  may  be  accomplished  by  this  method 
do  not  endure  imless  the  mental  images  are  frequently 
subjected  to  introspective  scrutiny. 

An  ephemeral  strengthening  of  the  auditory  imagery 
seems  to  be  effected  by  some  of  the  more  successful 
systems  of  elocutionary  training.  This  fact  accounts 
for  the  isolated  temporary  cures  accomplished.^  For 
several  hours  a  day  the  stammerer  is  drilled  upon 
vocal  exercises,  many  of  which  emphasize  the  vowel ; 
and  for  several  hours  more  he  reads  aloud  in  order  to 
comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  "system." 
As  a  result  of  this  practice  the  auditory  imagery  is 

^  Other  reasons  for  the  "cures"  can  also  be  assigned.  Fear  and 
physical  stammering  are  generally  eliminated,  —  the  former  by  the 
stammerer's  confidence  in  the  system,  and  the  latter  by  the  atten- 
tion given  to  the  conditions  required  for  natural  speech.  Multiple 
thought  is  also  precluded  for  a  time  by  the  attention  given  to  various 
"rules  of  speech."  Thus  most  of  the  secondary  causes  of  stammering 
are  temporarily  removed. 


COROLLARIES  361 

temporarily  intensified,  and  stammering  disappears. 
When  the  exercises  are  discontinued  or  practised  less 
frequently,  the  auditory  imagery  reverts  to  its  former 
condition,  and  the  stammerer  relapses  on  account  of 
*' carelessness." 

It  is  not,  however,  merely  to  the  intensification  of 
the  auditory  imagery  that  the  stammerer  must  look 
for  rehef.  The  auditory  imagery  is  too  unreliable 
and  treacherous  to  warrant  confidence  in  any  mitiga- 
tion of  the  impediment  that  its  transient  intensity  may 
effect.  With  the  occurrence  of  an  illness  the  imagery  is 
often  weakened,  and  stammering  naturally  recurs.  It 
is  the  usual  experience  of  even  the  cured  stammerer 
that  the  impediment  returns  with  its  old  vigor  when 
he  is  stricken  with  some  debihtating  disease.  The 
writer  could  cite  several  instances  in  which  principals 
of  ''stammering-schools"  have  themselves  suffered 
a  complete  relapse.  It  is  probable  that  such  relapses 
would  be  only  temporary  if  the  stammerer  understood 
the  prevaiHng  conditions.  Fluency  of  speech  would 
return  when  the  auditory  imagery  regained  its  former 
intensity.  However,  the  stammerer  does  not  under- 
stand the  conditions ;  hence  he  falls  a  victim  to  the 
secondary  causes. 

But,  if  a  complete  and  permanent  cure  is  to  be 
effected,  the  stammerer  must  cease  to  be  dependent 
upon  auditory  images ;  for,  so  long  as  he  reUes  upon 
these  images  as  speech-cues,  he  must  inevitably  stam- 


362       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

mer  when  amnesia  occurs.  If  it  is  possible,  the  stam- 
merer must  learn  to  depend  upon  kinaesthetic  and 
visual  cues ;  i.e.  he  must  become  an  articulo-moteur 
or  a  visuo-moteur.  It  is  probable  that  the  stam- 
merer can  never  disregard  his  auditory  images  entirely, 
but  if  he  can  supplement  them  by  efficient  motor 
and  visual  speech-cues,  he  may  be  independent  of  the 
auditory  images  when  amnesia  occurs.  But  the 
acquired  verbal  images  will  be  worthless  if  they  can 
be  recalled  only  through  association  with  the  auditory 
images.  The  acquired  images  must  be  estabHshed  as 
integral  and  independent  parts  of  the  verbal  concept, 
so  that  the  stammerer  can  redintegrate  them  directly , 
and  speak,  like  the  congenitally  deaf  person,  from 
kinaesthetic  and  visual  cues.^ 

*The  average  stammerer  would  probably  find  it  difficult  to 
develop  his  kinaesthetic  verbal  imagery  by  simply  attending  to  the 
sensations  that  the  speech-movements  produce.  He  might,  how- 
ever, be  assisted  by  visualizing  the  movements  he  is  endeavoring  to 
feel.  He  would  probably  find  the  kinaesthetic  impressions  from  the 
vowels  more  distinct  if  the  acoustic  sensations  were  excluded  from 
consciousness.  This  exclusion  could  not  be  accomplished  by  merely 
sealing  the  ears.  The  vocal  sound-waves  would  have  to  be  obliterated 
by  other  sound  introduced  to  the  auricular  canals.  (For  this  pur- 
pose, some  such  simple  apparatus  as  a  stethoscope  and  an  electrical 
"buzzer"  could  be  employed.) 

The  stammerer  would  establish  his  visual  cues,  like  the  deaf 
person,  by  observing  the  action  of  the  speech-organs  in  other  sub- 
jects, and  by  observing  the  action  of  his  own  speech-organs  in  the 
mirror.  (Literature  on  the  training  of  the  deaf  can  be  obtained 
from   The   Volta  Bureau,  Washington,   D.C.)     He  might  possibly 


COROLLARIES  363 

Teachers  of  the  deaf  have  in  the  past  often  under- 
taken the  treatment  of  stammering,  but  they  have 
not  generally  met  with  success.  The  probable  reason 
for  their  failure  is  that  they  have  attempted  to  teach 
the  stammerer  to  articulate  (a  thing  that  he  can  do 
perfectly  well),  and  that  they  have  neglected  the 
secondary  causes  of  stammering.  The  staramerer 
does  not  need  to  be  taught  to  articulate,  for  his 
difficulty  is  m-crely  to  produce  the  correct  color  of  the 
vowel.  If  he  is  to  discard  his  auditory  imagery,  he 
must  learn  to  mentally  see  and  feel  the  different  con- 
formations of  the  oral  cavity  corresponding  to  the 
vowels  that  he  has  formerly  ''heard."  He  has  to 
learn  vowel-positions  rather  than  consonant-move- 
ments. Whether  or  not  this  can  be  readily  accom- 
plished, and  whether  the  average  stammerer  can 
voluntarily  ignore  his  auditory  imagery  and  dehber- 
ately  resort  to  artificially  acquired  cues,  remains  yet 
to  be  ascertained  by  numerous  actual  experiments. 

The  writer  has  so  far  made  no  investigations  along 
this  particular  line.  It  is  for  the  reason  that  he  will 
be  unable  to  make  extensive  investigations  in  the 
immediate  future  that  he  pubHshes  the  results  of  his 

make  some  practical  use  of  Bell's  "visible  speech"  symbols.  (See 
Bell's  "Visible  Speech,"  etc.)  If  he  visualizes  readily,  he  might 
picture  the  words  in  "visible  speech,"  or  in  a  combination  of  "visible 
speech"  vowels  and  ordinary  alphabetic  consonants.  The  field  of 
investigation  is  still  unexplored,  and  it  is  difficult  to  state  what  the 
most  desirable  procedure  would  be. 


364       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  STAMMERING 

researches  while  yet  unable  to  supply  the  answer  to 
one  of  the  vital  questions  involved.  The  writer  does 
not  presume,  however,  to  have  solved  the  whole 
problem  of  the  cause  and  cure  of  stammering.  This 
monograph  represents,  in  the  main,  an  attempt  to 
explain  the  cause  of  stammering,  and  to  indicate 
the  direction  in  which  the  writer  believes  the  only 
radical  and  reliable  cure  is  to  be  found.  It  is  hoped 
that  this  volume  will  carry  the  necessary  conviction 
to  stimulate  investigation  in  the  direction  suggested. 
Yet,  whatever  the  success  that  may  attend  the  visual 
education  of  the  stammerer,  it  is  certain  that  the 
logical  method  of  handhng  the  defect  is  to  attack  the 
primary  disturbance  at  its  very  inception  —  during 
early  childhood  —  and  not  first  to  await  the  develop- 
ment of  compHcations.  If  the  amnesia  is  severe,  the 
child  can  be  converted  from  an  audito-moteur  to  an 
articulo-moteur.  If  the  amnesia  is  not  severe,  it  can 
generally  be  counteracted.  If  the  child  is  taught  to 
suppress  all  excitement,  and  to  think  of  the  words 
he  is  going  to  utter  —  to  think  how  they  are  going  to 
sound  —  he  can  usually  overcome  his  amnesia. 
Childhood  is  the  age  of  plasticity,  and  in  early  life 
one  accompHshes  with  consummate  ease  what  in 
later  years  becomes  a  matter  of  impossibility.  If 
the  primary  cause  of  stammering  is  allowed  to  persist, 
the  secondary  causes  quickly  supervene,  and  pure 
stammering  becomes  stammering  in  its  complex  form. 


COROLLARIES  365 

But  even  under  these  conditions,  stammering  is  more 
easily  remedied  at  an  early  age. 

A  few  of  the  progressive  municipalities  of  Europe 
and  America  have  instituted  special  courses  in  the 
public  schools  for  the  instruction  of  stammering  chil- 
dren. Where  the  system  of  instruction  has  not  been 
lacking  in  merit,  the  results  have  invariably  been 
propitious.  The  proportion  of  cures  effected  is  in 
some  accounts  given  as  high  as  80  per  cent.  Even  the 
more  conservative  reports  state  that  a  majority  of  the 
children  are  cured,  and  that  a  large  proportion  of  those 
not  cured  are  greatly  benefited  by  the  instruction.^ 
There  can  be  absolutely  no  doubt  that  in  thousands 
of  cases  stammering  can  be  eradicated  in  early  child- 
hood, when  it  would  not  be  amenable  to  treatment  in 
later  Hfe. 

It  is  the  obvious  duty  of  every  municipality  to 
institute  courses  of  instruction  for  stammering  chil- 
dren, that  later  they  be  not  '^baffled  at  every  turn  of 
life,  for  want  of  that  most  common  privilege  of  man." 

1  See  Brockhaus  Enzyklopddie  (14th  ed.,  Vol.  17;  article  "Stam- 
meln  und  Stottern";  also  Medizinish-pddagogische  Monatsschrift  fur 
die  gesamte  Sprachheilkunde,  May,  1894,  and  other  issues;  also 
Werner's  Magazine  (New  York),  February,  1895. 


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